Raw  Products 
of  the  World 

AFRICA 


Raw  Products 
of  the  World 


VOL.  I 


Africa 


By  RALPH  DAVOL 

Author  of  "AMERICAN  PAGEANTRY" 
"TWO  MEN  OF  TAUNTON" 


DAVOL  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 
TATJNTON,  MASSACHUSETTS 


COPYRIGHT  1922 
MAIN  LIBRARY-ATrr'M  TURE  DEPT. 


Camels     *     -*    Almonds     Esparto  Cor, 
Camels 


Camel 
Gum 
Otfr/c» 
Salt- 
Ostr/cf> 


Rubber 
Millet 
Ivory 
CastorOil 
Maite    Gum 

rote 


Rubber 
Gum 
Maize     Cotton 


fiorfo/K  Pines 
<?  Fla* 
^Turtles 


LOCATION     OF     AFRICAN      PRODUCTS 


\    I 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

In  compiling  this  work  the  writer  has  had  valuable  cleri- 
cal assistance  by  Ada  Mixon,  Clara  Kretzinger,  Alice  M. 
James  and  Henry  C.  Crane.  The  writer  has  visited  Africa  and, 
during  the  war,  was  employed  at  the  War  Trade  Board  in  re- 
search work  dealing  with  Africa  and  Oriental  countries. 

In  addition  to  the  special  reports  on  world  resources  sent 
by  American  consuls  during  the  war  the  sources  from  which 
the  material  in  this  book  is  gathered  include  U.  S.  Commerce 
Reports,  publications  of  the  Philadelphia  Commercial  Muse- 
um, Reports  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Geological 
Survey,  Statesman's  Year  Book,  British  and  French  Consular 
reports,  Bulletins  of  the  Agricultural  Institute  of  Rome,  and 
of  the  Imperial  Institute  of  Great  Britain,  British  Board  of 
Trade  Journal,  South  African  Year  Book,  publications  of 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  pamphlets  issued  by  the  National 
City  Bank  and  Guaranty  Trust  Company  of  New  York,  the 
following  magazines  and  newspapers:  Egyptian  Gazette, 
Capetown  News,  Nigeria  Gazette,  L'Afrique  Franchise,  Af- 
rican World,  South  African  Magazine,  Gordian,  and  such  pub- 
lished volumes  as  the  works  of  Sir  Harry  Johnson,  of  E.  D. 
Morel,  Theodore  Roosevelt,  C.  W.  Furlong,  H.  L.  Shantz,  John 
Hays  Hammond,  J.  Ellis  Barker  and  Oxford  Survey  of  British 
Empire. 

Ralph  Davol,  1922. 


ECONOMIC  AFRICA 

The  area  of  Africa,  including  the  islands  adjacent  to  the 
coast,  is  given  as  1 1,498,000  square  miles.  The  population  is 
approximately  150,000,000  natives  and  3,000,000  European 
colonists  located  mostly  on  the  fringe  of  sea-coast  and 
around  the  inland  rivers.  Since  the  abolition  of  the  slave 
trade  and  reduction  of  tribal  wars  and  of  plagues  and  epi- 
demics, largely  through  the  agency  of  missionaries,  the  blacks 
are  multiplying  faster  than  the  Caucasians. 

The  prospect  for  economic  development  of  Africa  is  es- 
pecially good  because  this  is  the  second  largest  continent  and, 
lying  across  the  equator,  has  products  of  the  tropical  and  tem- 
perate zones  at  all  times  and  the  backward  undeveloped  races 
offer  valuable  potentialities  of  immediate  improvement, 
though  the  continent  will  become  agriculturalized  rather  than 
industrialized  during  the  next  few  years. 

Of  the  world's  commerce,  Africa  has  but  4V2  per  cent., 
though  steadily  expanding.  For  the  year  1918  the  total  trade 
amounted  to  $2,145,000,000  of  which  $1,163,000,000  was  with 
Great  Britain.  The  United  State?' imports  from  Africa  for 
1913  were  valued  at  §2,107,812— for  1919,  at  $112,187,646. 
The  exports  from  the  United  States  to  Africa  for  1913  were 
valued  at  $2,790,377— for  1919,  at  $18,000,000. 

Africa  has  twice  the  population  of  South  America.  By 
educating  the  native  to  the  requirements  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion, his  purchasing  power  will  soon  place  Africa  ahead  of 
South  America  in  world  trade. 

Africa  is  essentially  a  land  of  raw  materials.  At  the 
present  time  many  of  the  world's  requirements  come  from  this 
almost  virgin  territory. 

The  giant  sea-turtle,  weighing  from  500  to  800  pounds, 
visits  the  Asencion  islands  every  spring  to  lay  its  eggs  on  the 
sandy  beach. 

In  the  territory  of  Kenya  the  acreage  devoted  to  maize 
is  rapidly  increasing — flax  is  well  established — livestock  in 
the  highlands  does  well  since  the  loss  from  rinderpest  and 
tick-borne  diseases  is  kept  down  by  scientific  control — natron 
and  diatomite  are  found  in  large  amount. 

Tanganyika  has  immense  forest  areas — many  large  sisal 
plantations  started  by  the  Germans — millions  of  sheep  and 
goats  owned  by  natives;  garnets  are  found  in  abundance. 


RAW  PRODUCTS   o?  AFRICA 


Uganda  is  largely  devoted  to  cotton-growing,  profitably 
carried  on- by  natives. 

Zanzibar  and  Pemba   islands  supply  the  bulk  of  the 
world's  cloves,  controlled  chiefly  by  Arabs. 

Mauritius  raises  sugar  and  hemp.  Copra  is  an  increasing 
product  of  East  Africa. 

Cotton,  tobacco  and  coffee  predominate  in  Nyassaland. 
On  the  island  of  St.  Helena  are  found  Norfolk  Pines  and 
Eucalyptus.  This  is  still  a  considerable  whaling  port. 

The  Seychelles  produce  cinnamon,  sugar,  vanilla  and  co- 
coanuts. 

SomaHIand  exports  hides  and  ghee;  Basutoland  wool, 
mohair,  wheat,  mealies  and  kaffir  corn. 

Bechuanaland  is  a  cattle-raising  country. 
The  products  of  Northern  Rhodesia  are  maize,  cotton,  to- 
bacco, wheat  and  rubber.  Southern  Rhodesia  has  gold  reefs 
and  cattle  ranges;  large  fruit  orchards  have  been  planted; 
tobacco  is  increasing  in  acreage.  Irrigation  projects  are  ad- 
vancing. Chromium,  asbestos  and  arsenic  are  mined. 

In  Swaziland  alluvial  tin  is  found,  but  this  is  chiefly  a 
grazing  country  for  cattle  and  sheep. 

Wheat,  barley,  oats,  maize,  potatoes  and  kaffir  corn,  are 
increasing  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa.  Wool,  mohair,  hides 
ostrich  feathers,  have  recovered  from  the  slump  of  the  war 
period.  Many  manufacturing  plants  are  starting  up.  Gold 
and  diamonds  are  main  source  of  wealth. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  exports  diamonds,  wines  and 
feathers. 

Bunker  coal  is  abundant  at  Natal,  though  this  is  not  of 
the  high  Welsh  standard.  Tea  plantations  are  numerous,  sug- 
ar and  wattle  bark  are  large  items.  Whale  fishing  continues 
prosperous. 

The  Transvaal  is  famed  for  its  gold  mines  on  the  Rand. 
Copper,  tin  and  coal  are  also  mined. 

Orange  Free  State  is  a  stock  raising  country.  Many  dia- 
monds are  exported  from  this  territory  as  well  as  from  former 
German  Southwest  Africa. 

Palm  oil  and  palm  kernels  are  the  principal  crop  of  Ni- 
geria. Other  products  are  rubber,  ground  nuts,  kola,  cocoa, 
shea  butter,  ivory,  capsicum  pepper,  hides,  mahogany,  sheep 
and  goat  skins.  Much  alluvial  tin  is  taken  out,  also  galena. 
Extensive  collieries  are  operated  at  Udi. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  3 

Gambia  supplies  gold  dust,  hides,  peanut  and  palm  prod- 
ucts. 

Palm  oil,  cocoa,  hides,  ivory  and  kola  nuts  come  from  the 
Camercons. 

The  Cold  Co^st  yields  many  valuable  woods,  gold  dust, 
cocoa,  kola,  manganese  and  palm  oil. 

Ashanti  exports  bananas,  cocoa  and  mahogany. 

From  the  Ivory  Coast  come  pineapples,  bananas,  cocoa, 
coccanuts,  mahogany,  palm  products,  coffee,  rubber  and  lum- 
ber. 

Dahomey  yields  palm  oil,  yams  and  manioc. 

Olive  oil  is  a  chief  product  of  Tunis,  which  also  exports 
sponges,  tunny,  anchovies,  citrus  fruits,  silk,  dates,  wheat, 
barley  and  durra,  wines,  almonds,  pistachio,  alfa,  henna,  cork, 
goat  skins.  Phosphates  and  lead  are  mined. 

Eritrea,  on  the  Red  Sea,  is  noted  for  its  pearl  fisheries. 
Other  exports  are  meats,  hides,  butter  and  palm  nuts. 

Italian  Somaliland  produces  ghee,  hides,  gums,  nuts,  cot- 
ton and  small  amount  of  petroleum. 

The  main  staples  of  Tripoli  are  olives,  lemons,  dates,  figs, 
cereals,  esparto,  almonds,  saffron,  durra  and  barley.  Sponges 
to  the  value  of  16,424,250  lira  were  gathered  in  1920. 

Tripoli  is  the  gateway  to  the  Sahara,  from  which  cara- 
vans of  camels  annually  bring  large  amounts  of  gums,  ostrich 
feathers,  gold  dust  and  ivory. 

From  the  Portuguese  islands  of  San  Thome  and  Principe 
corne  cocoa,  coffee,  rubber  arid  chincona. 

From  Togoland  come  cotton,  cocoa,  kapok,  cassava,  co- 
pra and  palm  products. 

Sierra  Leone  supplies  ginger,  snails,  palm  kernels  and 
kola  nuts. 

The  long-staple  cotton  of  Egypt  is  famous.  The  Nile  val- 
ley also  produces  wheat,  maize,  rice,  onions,  beans  and  eggs. 
Petroleum,  phosphate,  manganese,  talc,  gypsum,  salt,  tur- 
quoise and  alabaster  are  mined. 

Gum  arabic  is  the  great  product  of  Soudan,  which  also 
yields  cotton,  ivory,  sesame,  senna,  dates,  durra,  ebony,  bam- 
boo, castor  oil,  karite  nuts  and  much  cattle. 

In  Algeria  the  cork  tree  grows  abundantly,  also  esparto, 
grapes,  tobacco,  dates,  citrus  fruit,  figs,  olives,  wheat,  barley, 
oats  and  flax.  Silk  is  manufactured.  Many  vegetables  for 


EAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFEICA 


French  markets  are  raised.  Sardines,  tunny  and  sprats  are 
exported.  Sheep  are  raised  in  large  flocks.  Phosphates,  iron, 
lead,  zinc  and  sulphur  are  mined. 

Large  virgin  forests  are  found  in  French  Congo  where 
wild  rubber  abounds.  Palm  oil,  coffee  and  much  live  stock  are 
found  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Chad.  Salt  is  an  important  com- 
modity. 

The  products  of  Madagascar  include  rice,  sugar,  coffee, 
beans,  vanilla,  manioc,  cloves,  wild  rubber,  wool,  berry  trees, 
raffia,  silk,  graphite,  gold  and  nickel.  Breeding  of  hump- 
backed Indian  cattle  is  an  important  industry. 

The  islands  of  Mayotte  and  Commorro  produce  sugar 
cane,  vanilla  and  rum. 

Reunion  yields  rum,  maize,  coffee  and  manioc. 

Somaliland  exports  salt,  coffee,  ivory  and  hides.  Pearl 
fisheries  are  important. 

Liberia  exports  coffee,  piassava,  chilli  peppers,  palm  oils, 
kola  and  gold  dust. 

Senegal  and  Sahara  produce  ground  nuts,  salt,  millet,  rice 
castor  beans,  gums,  rubber  and  water  melons. 

Hides  come  from  Mauritania. 

Kubber,  wax,  ground  nuts,  hides,  wool,  palm  kernels, 
bananas  come  from  French  Guinea. 

The  Cape  Verde  islands  produce  medicinal  herbs,  cochi- 
neal, bananas,  and  goat  skins. 

Much  fish  for  Portugal  comes  from  Angola.  Other  prod- 
ucts are  wax,  coffee,  ivory,  cocoanuts,  sugar.  Wild  rubber  is 
being  exhausted.  Petroleum  and  asphalt  are  found,  also  mala- 
chite and  salt. 

Mozambique  yields  salt,  wax,  wattle  bark,  hides,  ivory, 
gold  ores,  sugar  and  cocoanuts. 

Cattle  and  coffee  are  standard  products  of  Abyssinia. 
Other  items  are  wax,  ghee,  goat  skins,  durra,  ivory  and  big 
game. 

FUTURE  OF  LEADING  PRODUCTS 

The  reefs  and  banquettes  of  Africa  seem  likely  to  supply 
between  40  and  50  per  cent,  of  the  world's  supply  of  gold  for 
years  to  come. 

The  De  Beers  Diamond  Company  has  been  called  the 
most  successful  trust  in  the  world  and  will  probably  control 
the  market  for  many  years  in  spite  of  the  activities  in  the  dia- 
mond fields  of  South  America  and  India. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


Tin  mining  was  stimulated  by  the  war.  The  large  output 
of  Nigeria  and  lesser  amounts  from  South  Africa,  Congo  and 
Algeria  may  not  keep  up  to  the  war  level. 

Phosphates  of  Algeria  and  Tunis  show  no  signs  of  giving 
out  and  will  hold  the  lead  for  some  time  to  come. 

The  vast  Katanga  copper  mines  are  reported  to  have  a 
sufficient  amount  of  ore  assaying  15  per  cent,  and  lying  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground  to  supply  the  entire  world  demand 
for  20  years. 

Soundings  for  petroleum  throughout  the  continent  have 
not  been  very  successful.  Egypt  has  a  steady  and  considerable 
flow.  Seepages  of  promise  are  found  in  Algeria,  Angola  and 
Mozambique.  Oil  distilled  from  shale  has  a  commercial  value 
in  South  Africa. 

The  lack  of  fuel  on  this  continent  where  labor  is  so  plen- 
tiful and  the  soil  so  productive  has  prompted  indefatigable 
efforts  to  discover  oil  in  commercial  quantities  for  operating 
engines. 

Ivory  from  elephant  tusks  must  of  necessity  decrease  with 
the  steady  reduction  of  the  herds.  The  supply  of  fossil  ivory 
will  naturally  decrease  more  rapidly  than  ivory  from  slaugh- 
tered animals. 

Big  Game  Diminishing 

Notwithstanding  many  restrictive  and  protective  game 
laws  big  game  is  diminishing.  In  certain  localities  lions  and 
elephants  have  been  condemned  for  depredations  on  farms 
and  ranches. 

Hides,  skins  and  meat  products  are  steadily  increasing  as 
the  grazing  lands  become  more  generally  utilized  and  pre- 
ventives of  animal  diseases  are  more  widely  used.  Native 
tribes  are  enlarging  their  flocks  of  sheep  and  cattle. 

Ostrich  feathers  are  recovering  from  the  slump  of  the  war 
but  South  Africa  is  not  likely  to  recover  its  monopoly  as  birds 
are  being  raised  successfully  in  Australia  and  Southwestern 
United  States. 

The  fisheries  and  sponge  industry  of  Northern  Africa 
show  little  change,  but  whale  fishing  from  South  Africa  is  de- 
clining. 

Outlook  for  Rubber 

Africa  was  once  the  chief  source  of  wild  rubber.  The 
rapid  advance  in  the  use  of  plantation  rubber  has  put  the  Ma- 
lay States  and  East  Indies  ahead  of  Brazil.  The  deadly  cli- 


6  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 

mate  of  the  rubber-growing  regions  works  against  Africa's  as- 
cendency in  this  product. 

The  cotton  industry  is  greatly  expanding  in  many  parts 
of  Africa.  Fine  Egyptian  Sakellaridis  is  grown  successfully 
in  several  colonies. 

Sisal  is  a  coming  crop  of  importance.  It  has  only  been  tried 
out  on  the  East  Coast  within  a  few  years,  but  with  remarkable 
success. 

Tobacco  is  advancing  as  an  African  crop,  particularly  in 
the  inland  uplands. 

Coffee  growing  is  spreading  in  several  colonies  in  the 
central  portion  of  the  continent. 

Cocoa  has  been  coming  to  the  front  rapidly  during  the 
past  20  years.  The  West  Coast  will  presumably  hold  the  lead- 
ing place  as  a  producer  of  cacao  beans. 

Kola  nuts  are  also  growing  as  an  export. 

The  cereals,  maize,  wheat,  barley,  millet,  durra,  are  in- 
creasing in  quantity  and  have  a  great  future  at  both  ends  of 
the  continent. 

The  Soudan  and  Central  Africa  will  continue  to  produce 
the  bulk  of  the  world's  gum  arabic. 

Vegetable  Oils  Important 

The  palm  oil  tree  of  West  and  Central  Africa  becomes 
more  important  as  the  demand  for  its  product  increases  in  the 
tin  plate  industry,  for  soap  manufacture,  as  a  butter  substitute 
and  as  a  lubricant  on  many  kinds  of  machinery.  Regulations 
for  conserving  and  replacing  this  valuable  tree  are  being  en- 
forced so  that  Africa  may  continue  to  command  the  market 
in  this  commodity. 

Climate  and  Soil 

The  principal  drawback  to  the  economic  development  of 
Africa  is  the  climate.  Much  of  the  continent  is  practically  un- 
inhabitable for  white  men  on  account  of  tropical  fevers  and 
malaria.  The  inland  plateaux  are  salubrious  and  are  steadily 
attracting  homesteaders.  Nearly  one-third  of  the  continent  is 
desert  land  and  a  large  portion  has  light  soil.  Irrigation  will 
work  wonders  in  many  sections.  Where  the  richest  soil  is 
found  the  tse-tse  fly  and  sleeping  sickness  exclude  the  white 
man.  There  are  immense  forests  and  jungles  never  penetrat- 
er  by  man  or  the  rays  of  the  sun.  A  fertile  strip  of  land  border- 
ing the  Mediterranean  Sea,  remarkable  for  its  fine  vineyards, 
is  known  as  the  Tell. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


Rainfall  varies  from  one-half  inch  on  the  Kalahari  des- 
ert to  140  inches  per  year  in  the  marshes  of  Calabar.  Snow 
occasionally  falls  in  Johannesburg  and  in  Morocco.  South 
Africa  is  mostly  a  tableland  from  3,000  to  6,000  feet  above 
sea-level — a  land  of  sunshine  much  like  California.  Egypt  has 
a  dry  and  healthful  climate  but  suffers  from  occasional  siroc- 
cos blowing  across  the  Sahara  sand  fields.  Monsoons  of  the  In- 
dian Ocean  are  a  disturbing  factor  on  the  East  Coast. 

Land  Proprietorship 

Many  territorial  changes  have  occurred  since  the  open- 
ing of  the  World  War.  In  1912,  eight  European  countries — 
England,  France,  Italy,  Germany,  Turkey,  Portugal,  Belgium 
and  Spain — held  dominion  over  Africa  with  but  two  inde- 
pendent states,  Liberia,  set  up  as  a  republic  early  in  the  past 
century  under  the  patronage  of  United  States,  and  Abyssinia, 
an  unconquered  upland,  mountainous  country.  Egypt  is  now 
a  sovereign  state  having  passed  from  the  control  of  Turkey 
to  England  in  1914,  and  in  1922  recognized  by  Great  Britain 
as  an  independent  nation.  Morocco  has  become  a  de  facto 
colony  of  France  by  virtue  of  purchase  and  conquest. 

The  former  German  colonies  have  been  divided  as  war 
prizes  in  the  following  manner:  German  East  Africa  goes 
to  the  British  under  the  name  of  Tanganyika  Colony,  except  a 
small  portion  on  the  western  edge  bordering  Belgian  Congo, 
which  falls  to  Belgium.  German  Southwest  Africa  is  an- 
nexed to  the  Union  of  South  Africa  under  British  control. 
Togoland,  on  the  west  coast,  is  divided  equally  between 
France  and  Great  Britain.  The  Cameroons  were  almost 
wholly  assigned  to  France,  the  remainder  to  England. 

Aside  from  the  above  territories  acquired  by  war  France 
has  a  larger  territorial  domain  than  Great  Britain,  though  the 
land  is  not  so  well  located,  so  productive  or  so  thickly  popu- 
lated. The  colonies  of  France  are:  Algeria,  Tunis,  Morocco, 
Senegal,  Sahara,  Senegambia,  French  Guinea,  Ivory  Coast, 
French  Somaliland,  Dahomey,  French  Congo,  Madagascar 
and  lesser  islands. 

Great  Britain,  besides  her  portion  of  the  former  Ger- 
man Colonies,  holds  possession  of  Gambia,  Sierra  Leone, 
Ashanti,  Gold  Coast,  Nigeria,  Union  of  South  Africa,  Rho- 
desia, Kenya,  Soudan,  British  Somaliland,  Zanzibar,  Suez 
Canal  and  numerous  small  islands. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


Belgium  holds  the  extensive  territory  of  the  Congo, 
seized  by  King  Leopold  I  in  1884  and  opened  up  to  interna- 
tional trade. 

Italy  obtained  Tripoli  as  a  result  of  the  Turko-Italian 
war  of  1912,  and  also  possesses  Eritrea  on  the  Red  Sea  and 
Somaliland  on  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Portugual,  the  pioneer  explorer  of  Africa,  retains  Moz- 
ambique, Angola,  Portuguese  Guinea,  the  fertile  islands  of 
San  Thome  and  Principe  and  Cape  Verde  and  Madeira  Isl- 
ands. 

Spain  clings  to  Rio  de  Oro,  Muni,  the  Canary  Islands, 
and  a  small  part  of  Morocco. 

Native  Tribes 

The  tribal  distribution  of  native  races  is  somewhat  as 
follows:  The  main  race  of  Africans  belongs  to  the  Bantu 
tribe.  These  Bantu  negroids  are  found  mostly  in  the  lower 
half  of  Africa,  whither  they  were  driven  by  the  pressure  of 
the  invading  Arabs  and  Moors  from  the  north.  They  include 
such  subordinate  tribes  as  the  Benga,  Aduma,  Umbete, 
Ashira,  Bamone,  on  the  Western  Coast;  in  the  Congo  Basin 
the  Luba-Lunba,  the  Ba-Kumu,  the  Ma-Supia,  and  the  Wa- 
Buma  tribes;  on  the  Eastern  shore,  the  Lacustrians,  includ- 
ing Wa-Duruma,  Ba-Toro,  Wa-Sumbwa,  Wa-Nyoka,  and 
Wa-Nguru  tribes;  near  the  southern  extremity  of  the  conti- 
nent are  the  Be-Chuna  and  Hamito-Bantu  bushmen,  Zulus, 
Matabeles,  Numaqua,  Ova-Herero,  and  Hottentots. 

In  the  Nile  valley  are  found  the  blackest  negro  tribes, 
including  the  Hausas,  Dagos,  Tumalis,  Somalis,  Korungas. 

In  Central  Africa  are  found  the  pygmy  tribes,  said  to  be 
the  earliest  natives,  whose  stature  averages  about  four  feet. 
They  are  divided  into  the  Dualas,  Ashangos,  Ba-Kundus. 

In  the  northern  regions  are  found  the  Berber  tribes 
known  as  Lybians.  In  the  Western  Soudan  are  found  the 
Fula  tribes,  the  most  advanced  in  civilization  of  the  abor- 
igines, and  in  the  central  Soudan  are  the  Tibbus.  The  Ham- 
ites  (descendants  of  Ham)  are  found  in  the  eastern  Soudan 
and  throughout  the  Horn  of  Africa.  The  ferocious  Somalis 
belong  to  this  tribe.  Abyssinia  has  a  mixture  of  Hamites  and 
Semites,  who  are  closely  related  to  the  half  breed  Fellahin  of 
Egypt. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


In  Madagascar  the  Hova  and  Malagasy  tribes  suggest 
that  this  island  may  have  been  peopled  from  the  Malay  pen- 
insula as  well  as  from  the  continent  of  Africa.  These  Hovas 
have  embraced  Christianity  and  have  made  a  notable  ascent 
in  their  civilization  as  compared  with  many  of  the  continent- 
al tribes. 

Labor  Situation 

The  150,000,000  natives  of  Africa  are  a  potentiality  rath- 
er than  an  immediately  available  reality  in  the  problem  of  la- 
bor. Productive  efficiency  is  at  a  low  percentage.  The  negro 
is  a  child  of  nature  and  obtains  his  food  supply  with  little  ex- 
ertion. Livingstone  said  that  for  any  man  merely  to  live  and 
survive  in  Africa  was  a  great  achievement  and  very  little 
should  be  expected  in  the  way  of  moral,  intellectual  or  physi- 
cal energy. 

Africa  was  principal  field  of  supply  for  slave  labor  for 
the  more  highly  civilized  nations  from  the  days  of  ancient 
Greece  to  the  present  century. 

Slavery  was  supposed  to  have  been  completely  abolished 
in  1906,  though  a  system  of  forced  labor  continued  in  various 
regions. 

The  range  in  capacity  for  useful  productiveness  runs 
from  the  intelligent  Fulani  and  Basuto  tribes  to  the  benighted 
pygmies  and  hottentots.  As  the  black  man  evolves  he  becomes 
pastoral  in  habit,  tending  large  herds  of  sheep  and  cattle — 
the  next  step  is  to  take  up  cotton  or  rice  cultivation — there  is  a 
long  road  to  travel  before  he  acquires  proficiency  as  a  skilled 
workman  in  a  factory. 

The  native  workman  is  always  referred  to  as  a  "boy" 
regardless  of  age.  The  price  paid  to  these  "boys"  is  as  low  as 
ten  rupees  per  month  on  the  East  Coast  and  fifteen  francs  on 
the  Congo.  Many  thousands  of  Chinese  and  Hindoos  were 
formerly  indentured  by  the  year  to  operate  mines  and  planta- 
tions in  South  Africa.  One  of  the  chief  occupations  of  the  na- 
tive is  that  of  porter,  averaging  sixty  pounds  per  man  (or  wo- 
man). Long  caravans  of  porters  bring  small  quantities  of 
merchandise  down  to  the  seaboard. 

The  walking  delegate  has  arrived  in  Africa — labor  unions 
are  organized  among  the  miners — outbreaks  of  I.  W.  W.  have 
been  suppressed  at  Johannesburg.  The  importation  of  alco- 
holic liquors  has  been  prohibited  in  the  more  backward  col- 
onies. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


Under  guidance  of  technical  schools  and  missions  the  na- 
tive will  gradually  acquire  new  ideas  and  learn  to  barter  his 
time  and  energy  to  satisfy  new  desires.  When  the  white 
"bosses"  have  made  the  black  man  both  a  producer  and  con- 
sumer of  white  man's  goods,  Africa  will  have  a  tremendous 
purchasing  power. 

FINANCIAL  SYSTEMS 

Africa  is  a  cluster  of  colonies  much  like  South  America 
100  years  ago.  Before  the  world  war  the  money  standards  in 
these  colonies  were  for  the  most  part  the  same  as  in  the  eight 
different  mother  countries  of  Europe.  Throughout  the  length 
of  the  East  Coast  the  Indian  rupee  has  been  a  current  coin  for 
centuries.  In  Northern  Africa  the  Turkish  piaster  still  circu- 
lates. The  Egyptian  pound  is  based  upon  100  piasters  and 
has  a  value  somewhat  above  the  English  pound. 

Most  of  the  business  of  Northern  Africa  is  conducted 
through  houses  in  Marseilles  or  Paris  and  the  franc  is  the 
standard  of  value.  Great  Britain  has  minted  a  special  African 
West  Coast  currency  of  shillings  and  pence.  Among  the  na- 
tive tribes  of  the  interior  cowrie  shells  are  yet  used  as  a  me- 
dium of  exchange,  and  also  salt  bars. 

The  British  Bank  of  South  Africa  has  more  than  300  small 
branches  throughout  the  lower  part  of  the  continent.  The 
National  City  Bank  of  New  York  is  establishing  agencies  in 
several  coastal  cities  of  South  Africa  for  the  convenience  oi 
American  shippers. 

In  most  of  the  colonies  there  is  a  native  hut  tax  which 
brings  in  a  considerable  revenue  and  gives  the  native  the  pro- 
tection of  law  by  becoming  a  part  of  the  government.  In  South 
Africa  this  tax  is  one  pound  for  the  head  of  the  family  and  one 
pound  for  each  extra  wife. 

Customs  Tariff 

On  the  West  Coast  and  the  Congo  the  import  tariff  is  10 
per  cent,  ad  valorem.  Certain  specific  duties  run  higher  than 
the  average  10  per  cent,  for  instance,  12  per  cent,  on  rice  in 
Liberia,  20  per  cent,  on  distilled  spirits  in  Nigeria.  In  Mor- 
occo the  tariff  is  12%  per  cent.;  in  Egypt  8  per  cent.  Algeria 
is  considered  a  part  of  France  and  has  the  same  rates  as  the 
mother  country;  3  francs  per  pair  on  dressed  leather  shoes 
in  Algeria.  British  East  Africa  is  10  per  cent.,  Mozam- 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  11 


bique  has  a  schedule  of  specific  rates  and  allows  50  per  cent, 
discount  to  Portugal.  The  Union  of  South  Africa  is  partly 
on  the  ad  valorem,  partly  on  the  specific  tariff  basis.  Most 
imports  are  taxed  20  per  cent,  of  the  value.  Exports  from 
America  like  petroleum  and  illuminating  oils  pay  from  2  to 
3  pence  per  gallon.  There  is  a  rebate  of  3  per  cent,  to  Great 
Britain  and  reciprocating  colonies.  To  take  advantage  of 
the  discount  to  English  Colonies,  Henry  Ford  ships  his  cars 
from  the  Canadian  factories.  Not  many  of  the  colonies  have 
a  differential  tariff  discriminating  against  the  United  States. 
Until  War  prohibition  went  into  effect  a  high  tariff  on  import- 
ed spirits  and  liquors  was  a  great  source  of  revenue. 

Export  duties  imposed  on  many  colonies  during  the  War 
have  now  been  repealed. 

Transportation  Facilities 

Railways  are  being  laid  so  rapidly  that  new  maps  can- 
not keep  pace  with  the  changes.  When  the  World  War 
broke  out  the  Cape-to-Cairo  railway  was  lacking  1500  miles 
between  El  Obeid  in  the  Soudan  and  Bukama  in  the  Congo. 
Stanley's  prediction  that  this  line  would  be  completed  by  1925 
may  possibly  be  fulfilled  now  that  Great  Britain  has  full  con- 
trol of  Central  Africa.  Short  railway  lines  are  leading  in- 
land from  the  coast  at  many  points,  several  of  them  built  to 
transport  troops  to  conquer  the  country.  These  lateral  lines 
will  ultimately  tap  the  main  transcontinental  route  and  open 
up  rich  regions  which  will  provision  Europe  with  vegetable 
oils,  cereals,  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  hides,  meats,  cotton  and 
timber. 

The  French  have  a  program  of  laying  down  18,000  miles 
of  track  during  the  next  15  years  at  a  cost  of  $800,000,000. 
These  lines  will  extend  from  Tangier  to  Alexandria  along  the 
Mediterranean  shore — across  the  Sahara  desert  to  Lake 
Chad  and  El  Obeid — and,  most  important  of  all,  from  Al- 
geria to  Dakar  at  Cape  Verde  from  which  point  travelers 
may  continue  a  trip  to  South  America  by  a  sea  voyage  of  only 
four  days. 

Instances  are  cited  where  the  cost  of  transporting  mer- 
chandise to  the  seaboard  by  gangs  of  porters  has  been  re- 
duced from  $200  per  ton  to  $10  per  ton  by  rail. 

The  automobile,  as  a  cargo  carrier,  is  coming  to  the 
fore.  The  six-ox  wagon  of  South  Africa,  the  camel  caravan 
of  the  north  and  the  strings  of  human  porters  trekking  across 


12  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


the  veldt  carrying  the  freight  upon  their  heads,  are  in  many 
places  giving  way  to  the  Ford  truck.  Metalled  roads  have 
been  laid  out  in  the  French  and  British  colonies.  The  sharp 
rise  in  grade  from  the  seacoast  to  the  tableland,  makes  a  dif- 
ficult problem  for  railroad  engineers  to  overcome.  The  auto- 
mobile can  negotiate  these  grades  more  easily  than  the  loco- 
motive. 

Marine  Transportation 

Keen  competition  for  overseas  trade  since  the  War  has 
resulted  in  much  better  shipping  facilities  for  Africa  than 
formerly.  Several  new  steamship  lines  have  more  than  re- 
placed the  defunct  German  companies.  Japan  has  added 
lines  to  South  and  East  Africa — the  United  States  to  North, 
West  and  South  Africa.  Modern  refrigerator  ships  have 
been  specially  built  for  African  trade  by  the  Elder-Dempster 
Company.  Four  thousand  ships  annually  pass  through  the 
Suez  canal,  the  bulk  of  which  are  British,  with  only  a  hand- 
ful of  American  register. 

There  are  very  few  bays  and  arms  of  the  sea  indenting 
the  continent  to  promote  maritime  trade.  Usually  there  is  a 
sand  bar  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  to  prevent  entry  of  any 
sizeable  craft.  In  sections  the  larger  rivers  are  navigable  to 
shallow  draft,  stern-wheel  steamers.  Waterfalls,  rapids  and 
seasonal  variations  in  volume  of  water  preclude  regular  travel 
except  by  the  much-used  pirogue  made  of  a  hollowed-out 
tree. 

Off  the  coastal  ports  vessels  are  usually  obliged  to  an- 
chor in  roadsteads  and  embark  freight  by  lighters.  At  Lagos 
a  30-foot  channel  has  been  dredged  to  the  wharves — at  Casa 
Blanca  vessels  of  35-foot  draft  may  now  come  alongside  the 
modern  docks.  At  Durban  and  Port  Elizabeth  $50,000,000  is 
being  expended  to  install  the  most  up-to-date  appliances  for 
loading  bunker  coal  in  the  many  vessels  which  call  at  these 
ports.  At  Dar-es-Salaam,  Mombasa  and  Beira  on  the  In- 
dian Ocean  port  facilities  have  been  greatly  improved.  Al- 
geria and  Alexandria  harbors  are  literally  "forests  of  masts' ' 
so  many  tramp  vessels  visit  these  shores. 

Across  such  large  inland  lakes  as  Nyanza  and  Tangan- 
yika there  are  steamers  of  300  tons  plying  regularly. 

The  opportunities  for  developing  hydro-electric  power 
are  unlimited.  The  falls  of  the  Zambesi  river  are  higher  than 
Niagara  and  could  supply  tremendous  power  if  South  Africa 
should  become  an  industrial  center  of  factories. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA  13 


The  following  steamship  lines  from  America  to  Africa 
were  operating  in  1919:  To  South  Africa,  American  and  Afri- 
can, Funch-Edye,  Houston,  Prince  and  Union  Clan  lines;  to 
West  Africa,  Elder-Dempster  lines  from  New  York.  Trans- 
shipment routes  from  Liverpool,  Southampton  and  Marseil- 
les. To  East  Africa,  all  lines  plying  to  South  Africa  occasion- 
ly  extend  service  to  East  Africa.  Trans-shipment  to  lines  from 
Liverpool,  Marseilles  and  Cape  Town. 

To  Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunis, — best  reached  by  trans- 
shipment from  Gibraltar,  Marseilles,  Genoa,  Barcelona. 

To  Egypt  and  Red  Sea  ports,  Castriotis  line,  American 
and  India  line,  Ellerman's  Wilson  line.  Transshipment  at 
Marseilles,  Naples,  Suez,  Port  Said  and  Aden. 

Manufactures 

The  early  civilization  of  the  Nile  valley  had  mastered 
the  art  of  smelting  ores  and  fashioning  them  into  objects  of 
great  value,  and  also  acquired  high  proficiency  in  hand- 
wrought  articles  as  well  as  weaving.  These  handicrafts  have 
been  preserved  by  most  of  the  black  tribes. 

Manufacturing  by  modern  machinery  has  only  recently 
been  introduced  into  Africa.  Algeria  has  mills  for  making 
flour  and  meal.  Egypt  manufactures  cigarettes,  Nigeria  re- 
fines oil,  Rhodesia  has  mills  for  rolling  iron,  South  Africa  is 
introducing  plants  for  the  manufacture  of  such  articles  as 
furniture,  cement,  boots  and  shoes,  bottles,  pottery  and  rough 
hardware. 

But  Africa  looks  to  the  outside  world  for  most  of  its  fin- 
ished goods  and  several  raw  products.  Before  the  War, 
England  supplied  gray  sheetings,  cotton  piece  goods  and  cal- 
icoes; France,  automobiles  and  shoes;  Germany,  electrical 
goods,  firearms  and  hardware;  Austria,  hats  and  fezzes;  Hol- 
land, Schnapps  and  trade  gin  distilled  from  potatoes;  Japan, 
rice  and  silks;  Greece,  tobacco;  Scandinavia,  casks  and 
matches;  Chile,  nitrates,  brought  by  vessels  carry  exchange 
cargo  of  coal  from  South  Africa;  United  States,  iron  and 
steel  products,  windmills,  well-boring  machines,  petroleum 
and  furniture. 

Four  Trade  Regions 

By  reason  of  geographical  position,  sovereign  control, 
medium  of  exchange,  and  dominating  commercial  power, 
Africa  divides  into  four  trade  regions.  The  Mediterranean 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


region,  in  which  business  is  mostly  carried  on  with  French 
houses,  although  the  Italians  dominate  Tripoli  and  a  divers- 
ity of  merchants  do  business  in  Egypt,  includes  Egypt,  Trip- 
oli, Tunis,  Algeria,  Morocco,  Tangier  and  other  Spanish  pos- 
sessions. Most  of  the  commerce  has  been  with  trans-Medi- 
terranean ports  of  Europe.  But  England,  of  course,  takes 
the  bulk  of  the  Egyptian  cotton  crop  and  considerable  barley, 
wheat  and  esparto  grass  from  the  French  possessions.  The 
United  States  has  had  very  little  steamship  communication 
with  this  region  since  the  days  when  the  Barbary  pirates 
preyed  upon  its  merchant  marine  until  suppressed  by  Bain- 
bridge  and  Decatur.  Greeks  control  the  sponge  and  pearl 
fisheries. 

South  Africa  includes  the  British  possessions  of  Rho- 
desia and  the  Union  of  South  Africa,  Portuguese  East  Africa, 
through  which  the  bulk  of  foreign  commerce  is  made  up  of 
English  goods  in  transit ;  German  Southwest  Africa,  which  was 
subjugated  by  the  British  during  the  World  War,  and  An- 
gola, a  minor  province,  through  which  an  outlet  by  rail  will 
soon  be  completed  for  the  product  of  the  English-owned 
mines  of  Katanga.  The  bulk  of  the  shipping  to  these  ports 
was  carried  in  British  bottoms,  although  before  the  War  the 
German  Woermann  line  and  the  Ost  Afrika  line  were  picking 
up  a  very  large  trade.  The  United  States  has  regular  steam- 
er communication  with  this  section,  to  which  it  ships  a  large 
quantity  of  mining  and  agricultural  machinery,  and  from 
which  it  brings  a  great  deal  of  wool.  South  Africa,  which 
claimed  65  per  cent,  of  the  total  trade  in  1900,  has  now  fal- 
len to  45  per  cent. 

The  West  Coast  embraces  French  West  Africa,  including 
Dahomey,  Guinea,  Gaboon  and  French  Congo,  the  former 
German  colonies  Togo  and  Kamaroon;  the  English  Nigeria 
Gold  Coast,  Sierra  Leone,  Gambia,  Liberia,  the  Negro  Repub- 
lic under  a  quasi-protectorate  of  the  United  States,  and  Bel- 
gian Congo.  The  United  States  has  had  no  direct  line  of 
steamers  until  after  the  War.  German  vessels  had  car- 
ried most  of  the  commerce  of  this  region,  which  consisted 
mainly  of  palm  products.  Several  English  lines  of  steamers 
call  at  the  English  ports,  and  take  on  bunker  coal  at  Port 
Harcourt. 

The  Indian  Ocean  region  includes  the  Red  Sea  ports  of 
Eritrea,  the  Somalilands,  Abyssinia,  British  and  German  East 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  15 


Africa,  and  Madagascar.  These  colonies  are  controlled  by 
Italian,  French,  German,  English  officials.  Trading  is  chiefly 
in  the  hands  of  Arabs  and  Jews,  and  largely  carried  on  with 
India,  Australia  and  Japan.  The  Japanese  have  two  lines  of 
steamers  touching  at  these  ports,  which  have  taken  over  a 
large  part  of  the  trade  carried  by  the  German  Ost  Afrika  line. 
French,  Portuguese  and  British  steamers  sail  through  the 
canal,  but  the  German  line  had  the  best  passenger  traffic  and 
carried  most  of  the  hunters  to  this  region.  The  United  States 
has  occasional  steamship  connections  with  Madagascar  and 
the  East  Coast  but  most  of  the  commerce  requires  trans- 
shipment at  the  Cape  or  at  Alexandria.  The  output  of  the 
Congo,  Rhodesian  and  Transvaal  mines  is  at  present  carried 
through  the  East  Coast  ports. 

Trade  With  United  States 

In  1910,  South  Africa  imported  from  Germany  16.8  per 
cent,,  from  the  United  States  7.8  per  cent.,  from  England  59 
per  cent.  The  principal  exportations  from  Africa  to  the 
United  States  are  wool  from  South  Africa  (some  hundred 
thousand  bales);  cotton  from  Egypt  of  a  similar  amount; 
palm  oils  and  a  rapidly  increasing  share  of  the  cocoa  pro- 
duct from  the  West  Coast;  considerable  asbestos  from  South 
Africa;  wattle  bark  and  mangrove  for  tanning  leather  from 
the  East  Coast;  cloves  and  vanilla  from  Zanzibar  and  Mada- 
gascar; graphite  from  Madagascar;  chrome  iron  from  Rho- 
desia; phosphates  from  Tunis;  sisal  and  rafia  from  the 
tropics;  ivory  and  rubber  from  the  equatorial  belt;  and  hides 
from  all  quarters,  particularly  Cape  Town,  Nigeria,  Moroc- 
co, Soudan,  Abyssinia,  British  East  Africa  and  Madagascar. 

Of  the  total  United  States  imports  in  1913  1.46  per  cent, 
came  from  Africa  and  in  1918  2.58  per  cent.  Of  the  total  U. 
S.  exports  in  1913,  1.18  per  cent,  went  to  Africa.  During  the 
War  of  course  Europe  absorbed  the  vast  bulk  of  U.  S.  exports 
and  the  African  percentage  fell. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  World  War  the  following  ex- 
ports from  United  States  to  Africa  have  greatly  increased: 
Candles,  automobiles,  anthracite  coal,  motorcycles,  biscuit, 
rice,  blacking,  brass  manufacture,  sodas  and  salts,  baking 
powder,  horses,  dyes,  clocks  and  watches,  confectionery, 
dental  goods,  soap,  explosives,  canned  fish,  optical  instru- 
ments, bar  iron  and  iron  wares,  builders'  hardware,  engines 


16  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 

of  all  kinds,  cutlery,  shoe  and  textile  machinery,  nails,  iron 
pipe,  wire  fencing,  lamps,  condensed  milk,  victrolas,  oil 
cloths,  steel  and  iron  plates,  newspaper  and  all  other  varie- 
ties of  paper,  bags,  boxes,  motion  picture  films,  roofing  felt, 
cigarettes,  shocks,  glass  bottles,  jewelry,  copper  rods  and 
wire,  electrical  appliances,  petroleum,  steel  rails  and  agricul- 
tural implements. 

Africa  and  the  Great  War 

Africa  did  not  suffer  materially  from  the  World  War. 
Her  commercial  position  in  the  world  was  strengthened.  The 
wholesale  destruction  of  ships  by  submarines  threw  the 
colonists  upon  their  own  resources  largely.  Many  new  man- 
ufacturing plants  sprang  up  which  will  continue.  Production 
of  staple  commodities  was  stimulated  and  new  fields  opened 
up.  The  United  States  and  Japan  have  divided  most  of  the 
trade  which  formerly  went  to  Germany. 

Outlook  for  Next  Few  Years 

Africa  is  the  largest  area  in  the  world  awaiting  develop- 
ment. Although  Egypt  had  a  flourishing  civilization  jcen- 
turies  before  Europe  and  2000  years  before  America  was 
dreamed  of,  modern  Africa  is  only  about  50  years  old,  dat- 
ing from  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869  and  Living- 
stone's trip  across  the  continent.  The  European  scramble  for 
colonial  possessions  reached  the  climax  in  1884. 

Gold  and  slaves  were  the  wealth  sought  by  adventurers 
during  the  18th  and  19th  centuries.  Utilization  of  the  land 
for  commercial  purposes  has  really  only  commenced  in  the 
last  few  decades. 

Since  the  World  War  ended  attention  has  been  directed 
to  the  Dark  Continent  more  intensively.  Victor  Hugo,  in  the 
middle  of  the  last  century,  prophesied  that  Africa  would  be 
the  cynosure  of  the  world  in  the  20th  century.  The  new  spir- 
it of  internationalism,  which  holds  that  each  country  shares 
in  the  prosperity  or  distress  of  all  other  countries,  is  endeav- 
oring to  erase  geographical  boundaries  and  national  bar- 
riers so  as  to  equalize  opportunities  for  advancement  of  all 
nations  and  bring  about  a  more  even  distribution  of  those 
things  that  make  for  common  human  happiness.  The  mental 
interval  between  the  average  black  man  and  average  white 
man  is  so  wide  that  this  continent  offers  the  greatest  field  for 
development.  White  man's  capital  will  work  wonders  in  black 
man's  Africa. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  17 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 

Africa  has  been  most  widely  advertised  through  its 
animals.  School  boys  the  world  over  have  pictured  the  Dark 
Continent  as  a  vast  zoological  garden.  Although  the  wild 
animals  are  gradually  dwindling,  Africa  seems  particularly 
adapted  to  support  a  vast  quantity  of  domesticated  stock  in  a 
practically  virgin  field.  Animal  husbandry  for  the  future  ap- 
parently centers  in  cattle  and  sheep-raising  on  the  vast 
stretches  of  hinterland  obtainable  at  low  prices.  Cattle  in 
South  Africa,  like  camels  in  Northern  Africa,  have  been  bred 
largely  for  draught  purposes  and  may  be  doomed  to  reduction 
in  numbers  by  recent  mechanical  inventions  for  transporta- 
tion, though  horses  and  mules  have  increased  in  spite  of  the 
motor  car. 

The  hilly  topography  and  dry,  warm  climate  of  the  con- 
tinental extremities  are  favorable  to  wool-growing  which  is 
advancing  in  Morocco,  Algeria  and  Cape  Colony.  Cattle  do  not 
require  hill  country  and  thrive  on  the  immense,  broad,  inland 
plateaux.  Canned  and  frozen  meats  are  constantly  increasing 
for  export.  Hides  and  skins  come  from  every  corner  of  the 
continent.  Dongola  and  Morocco  have  contributed  to  the 
world's  styles  of  leather.  Hogs  thrive  wherever  corn  wll  grow, 
i.  e.,  throughout  Africa,  although  the  climate  and  religious 
prejudice  restrict  their  numbers.  Introduction  of  alfalfa  will 
increase  domestic  livestock. 

Africa  leads  the  world  in  production  of  ostrich  feathers 
(90  per  cent.),  ivory  (80  per  cent.),  big  game  (60  per  cent.), 
mohair  (50  per  cent.),  and  takes  high  rank  in  the  produc- 
tion of  wool,  hides  and  skins,  camel's  hair,  coral,  sponges, 
tunny,  anchovies,  civet,  guano,  egret  feathers  and  bees-wax. 

Along  the  Mediterannean  littoral  there  is  an  immense 
production  of  eggs  for  European  consumption.  Butter  and 
cheese  are  increasing  exports  from  South  Africa — ghee  from 
Somaliland  and  Abyssinia. 

Sea  products  come  from  the  Northwestern  and  South- 
eastern coast  especially.  Tunny  abound  off  Tunis,  anchovies 
off  Algeria,  coral  off  Morocco,  sponges  off  Tripoli,  pearls  in 
the  Red  Sea,  turtles  at  Madagascar.  Seals  and  whales  are 
not  so  plentiful  as  formerly.  Much  guano  is  gathered  from  the 
dry  islands  near  the  coast. 

For  increased  production  of  fish,  fowl  and  flesh,  the  latter 
holds  the  greatest  promise  for  broad  commercial  development. 


18  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


WOOL 

Sheep-raising  is  most  profitable  in  dry,  elevated  regions 
where  there  is  good  pasturage.  The  best  wool  is  produced  in 
countries  where  fat  is  not  created  for  bodily  warmth.  Damp, 
cold  regions  produce  the  best  mutton.  Thus  the  northern  and 
southern  extremities  of  Africa  are  well-suited  to  wool  pro- 
duction. The  heavy  rainfall  of  the  equatorial  belt  is  not  fav- 
orable. 

The  total  number  of  sheep  in  the  world 
Sheep  Census.  (1918)  has  been  estimated  at  600,000,000. 

Australia  and  Argentina  are  the  largest  sheep 
raising  countries.  Sheep  in  Africa  for  1918  are  estimated  at 
74,000,000,  distributed  as  follows: 

Algeria 8,500,000 

Morocco    5,000,000 

Rio  del  Oro 100,000 

Senegal  and  French  West  Africa 500,000 

Gambia  100,000 

Dahomey  100,000 

Togoland  and  Kamaroons 250,000 

French  Guinea  150,000 

Angola  100,000 

German  Southwest  Africa  2,000,000 

Union  of  South  Africa 35,000,000 

Rhodesia  400,000 

Mozambique   200,000 

Madagascar  500,000 

German  East  Africa 5,000,000 

British  East  Africa 6,000,000 

Abyssinia  3,000,000 

Somaliland  (British,  Italian,  French) 1,000,000 

Egypt  and  Soudan 1,300,000 

Tripoli  1,500,000 

Tunis  1,100,000 

Islands  50,000 

The  Tanner's  Council  estimates  sheep  in  Africa  at  77,000,000. 

According  to  statistics  of  the  National  Woolgrow- 
Quantity  ers'  Association  of  America,  the  total  wool  produc- 
ofWool.  tion  of  the  world  for  1918  was  2,808,796,243 

pounds,  of  which  Africa  produced  207,680,470 
pounds.  The  United  States  produced  299,921,000  pounds 
Forty-five  per  cent,  of  the  wool  production  is  within 
the  British  Empire,  particularly  Australia,  South  Africa  and 
New  Zealand,  which  have  almost  a  monopoly  of  fine  merino 
wool.  Production  in  Africa  was  approximately  as  follows: 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  19 


Union  of  South  Africa 160,000,000  pounds 

Algeria   30,000,000 

Rhodesia   50,000 

Egypt  8,000,000 

British  East  Africa   500,000 

.Tunis  4,000,000 

Morocco  5,000,000        " 

Madagascar  3,000,000 

German  Southwest  Africa 2,000,000 

Total  world's  product  (1914)  was  2,900,000,000  pounds, 
of  which  Africa  furnished  150,000,000  pounds.  The  Philadel- 
phia Commercial  Museum  gives  225,000,000  pounds  for  1913. 
The  most  characteristic  African  breed  is  the 
Breeds  of  Sheep  fat-tailed  sheep.  The  lump  of  fat  in  the  tail 
and  Qualily.  like  that  on  the  back  of  the  camel  or  the 

withers  of  the  zebu  is  a  provision  of  nature 
for  resisting  prolonged  drought  affecting  vegetation.  The 
Merino  sheep,  which  is  the  main  stock  of  the  South  African 
flocks,  originated  in  Northern  Africa,  and  was  improved  in 
Spain,  from  which  it  spread  over  the  world. 

Karakul  sheep,  which  produce  the  lambskins  valued  as 
astrakan,  are  numerous  in  many  sections.  These  sheep  came 
originally  from  Bokhara,  Persia.  Living  in  arid  countries 
for  many  generations  and  subsisting  on  scanty  fare,  they  have 
acquired  great  hardihood;  consequently  they  are  profitable 
in  large  barren  regions  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa.  Infusion 
of  Karakul  blood  on  the  Africander  stock  makes  a  profitable 
sheep  both  for  wool  and  mutton.  Merino  is  not  so  good  for 
mutton  as  crossbreeds. 

In  Abyssinia,  a  race  of  very  small  black-headed  sheep, 
the  flesh  of  which  is  unusually  good,  is  raised  for  wool.  The  clip 
is  manufactured  locally  into  coarse  cloaks  worn  in  the  hill  re- 
gions. The  price  of  this  sheep  varies  from  38  cents  to  $1.93. 

Wild  Barbary  sheep  (Ovis  tragelaphus)  are  found  in  the 
northern  outskirts  of  the  Sahara  desert,  but  they  are  of  value 
chiefly  to  hunters  and  as  staple  exhibits  in  zoological  gardens. 

The  ovine  herds  of  the  northern  French  colonies  are  of 
two  classes:  One,  permanently  stabilized  in  the  oasis;  the 
other  ranging  over  the  great  open  steppes,  seeking  pasture. 
The  size  of  the  nomad  herds  varies  yearly  according  to  amount 
of  rain  and  weather  conditions.  The  permanent  herds  consist 
of  five  or  ten  sheep  at  each  oasis  where  they  have  abundant 
food  and  produce  excellent  mutton.  The  oases  of  Gabes  sup- 
port 50,000  sheep  of  the  large  fat-tailed  variety  known  as 


20  RAW  P.RO DUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


"Barbarin".  The  wool,  spun  by  the  women,  is  used  for  carpet- 
making,  and  especially,  for  burnooses. 

In  Egypt  the  prevailing  color  of  the  sheep  is  brown.  They 
furnish  a  coarse  wool  for  carpet  and  rug  making. 

The  common  sheep  of  Nigeria  are  wire-haired,  long 
legged,  short-horned  and  carry  a  mane.  Fat-tails  are  the  com- 
mon sheep  of  Madagascar. 

The  Union  of  South  Africa  is  the  leading  coun- 
South  African  try  of  Africa  exporting  wool,  and,  within  the 
Clip.  British  Empire,  is  second  only  to  Australia. 

The  total  wool  clip  for  1918  was  500,000 
bales  against  450,000  bales  for  1917.  There  are  in  South 
Africa  35,000,000  sheep,  of  which  about  5,000,000  are  bred 
for  mutton  rather  than  for  wool.  The  number  in  1913  was 
30,000,000,  mostly  of  Merino  and  cross-bred  stock.  South 
African  stock-raisers  occasionally  shear  their  sheep  twice  a 
year,  a  detriment  to  the  trade.  The  wool  is  not  of  the  very 
highest  grade,  as  the  sheep  do  not  feed  on  grass,  but  on  a  shrub 
called  "karoo",  growing  in  the  red  sand,  and  bearing  a  burr 
which  catches  in  the  fleece.  Tags  are  common,  which  de- 
preciates the  wool,  as  do  also  the  dust  storms  and  blazing  sun. 

There  has  been  a  growing  shortage  of  wool  during  the 
war  period,  due  to  drought  in  Australia,  to  the  use  of  pastures 
for  other  agricultural  purposes  and  to  the  increase  of  the  mut- 
ton supply  by  cross-breeding.  Wool  is  being  scoured  in  South 
Africa  and  machinery  has  recently  been  shipped  for  textile  in- 
dustries, which  should  prosper,  as  the  climate  is  as  favorable 
as  that  of  Philadelphia. 

Wool  production  in  South  Africa  for  the  five-year 
Quantity,     pre-war  average,  1909-13,  amounted  to  145,000,- 
000  Ibs.    The  production  of  Merino  wool  in  South 
Africa  averaged  about  130,000,000  Ibs.,  or  90  per  cent. 

The  average  exports  to  Great  Britain  preceding  1913 
were  115,000,000  Ibs.  The  amount  of  clothing  wool  shipped 
to  the  United  States  was  66,500,000  Ibs.  in  1916. 

The  Statistical  Abstract  gives  the  following  wool  produc- 
tion for  1913  and  1915,  showing  the  changes  during  the  first 
years  of  the  war,  when  Egypt  doubled  its  output: 

1913  1915 

Union  of  South  Africa 176,971,865  Ibs.  170,009,886  Ibs. 

Southern  Rhodesia 34,784  "  36,123  " 

East  Africa  Protectorate 233,184  "  321,328  " 

Egypt   4,981,183  "  8,148,475  " 


RAW  PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  21 


Wool  from  Northern  Africa,  which  is  not  a  large  clip, 
goes  to  Marseilles  and  Genoa  principally.  Many  live  sheep  are 
exported  from  Northern  Africa. 

Export  Figures: 

1913  Morocco  exported  wool  to  the  value  of 1,300,000 

1915  Egypt  exported  72,734  cwt.  wool,  valued  at  $1,227,000 

Algeria  exported  wool  to  the  value  of 3,198,400 

Algeria  exported  sheep  to  the  value  of 8,288,000 

Morocco  exported  wool  to  the  value  of 615,166 

Union  So.  Africa  exported  wool  to  value  of.. ..26, 861,775 

1916  Egypt  exported  wool  worth 1,350,000 

Morocco  exported  woolen  goods,  value  of....        44,000 

1916  Union  So.  Africa  exported  wool  to  value  of.. ..33,000,000 

1917  Union  So.  Africa  exported  117,657,142  pounds. 

Before  the  war  Germany  and  Austria  consumed  30 
Markets,  per  cent,  of  the  best  African  wool.  With  the  elim- 
ination of  Germany  from  the  wool  market,  Japan 
increased  her  purchases  from  South  Africa.  During  1917  the 
British  Government  took  two-fifths  of  the  supply  and  the  keen 
rivalry  between  Japan  and  the  United  States  boosted  the  price 
above  that  paid  by  the  English  Government,  much  to  the  dis- 
content of  the  Cape  sheep-raisers.  The  purchases  by  the 
Japanese  were  mostly  of  combed  wool,  while  that  taken  by 
the  United  States  was  scoured  wool. 

The  bulk  of  the  African  wool  crop  goes  to  Yorkshire, 
England.  Plants  of  the  American  Woolen  Company  in  New 
England  and  the  large  factories  in  Philadelphia  receive  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  South  African  wool  which  often  comes  in 
square-rigged  sailing  ships. 

At  the  English  Government  auctions,  which  have 
Prices,     been  resumed  since  the  war,  the  range  of  values  in 

April,  1919,  for  South  Africa,  was  as  follows: 
Grease,       Western  District,  30d.  to  36 %d. 
Port  Elizabeth,  24i/2d.  to  36d. 
Natal,  19d.  to  38i/2d. 
Scoured,     Port  Elizabeth,  41i/2d.  to  67d. 
Natal,  48d.  to  56d. 
East  London,  48i/2d.  to  58i/2d. 

The  average  price  of  wool  for  1917  was  33  cents  per 
pound.  In  1913  the  average  price  was  15  cents  per  pound. 
The  British  Government  offered  to  take  the  clip  of  1917  at  a 
price  of  55  per  cent,  higher  than  the  average  before  the  war 
(about  27  cents  per  greased  pound) ;  200,000  bales  (about 
two-fifth  of  the  clip)  were  sold  under  this  arrangement.  Many 


22  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


of  the  farmers  broke  their  contracts  when  they  found  that  the 
United  States  or  Japan  would  pay  a  higher  price  (reaching  36 
cents  per  lb.). 

The  cost  of  feeding  sheep  in  South  Africa  has  been  given 
as  $4  per  year  per  head. 

Wool-growing  has  undergone  many  vicissitudes 
Outlook  for  in  Africa  during  the  past  half  century.  Flocks 
Wool.  have  been  decimated  by  occasional  severe 

drought,  and  ravages  of  scab,  tick,  redwater, 
and  other  diseases  have  periodically  discouraged  the  sheep- 
raiser.  Dipping  in  tanks  of  arsenic  water  or  lime  and  sulphur 
to  destroy  disease-breeding  flies  and  insects  has  become  more 
general  in  South  Africa  and  is  a  great  protection.  There  has 
been  an  increase  in  the  number  of  veterinaries  to  combat  the 
diseases  attacking  all  animals.  By  experimentation  flocks  have 
been  improved  and  breeding  stock  has  been  transported  free 
of  charge  by  the  Union  Castle  Line  from  England.  Although 
there  was  a  slight  falling  off  in  production  due  to  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  war,  there  has  been  a  steady  increase  in  the 
wool  output  of  Africa,  and  the  probability  is  that  the  indus- 
try will  continue  to  expand  throughout  the  broad  pasture 
lands.  Japan  will  presumably  make  regular  and  increasing 
purchases  of  African  wool  for  transportation  by  her  new 
steamship  line.  The  returning  soldiers  are  likely  to  take  up 
sheep-raising  on  the  tracts  of  land  granted  them  in  Rhodesia. 
There  has  been  a  marked  increase  in  the  flocks  of  Egypt  and 
in  British  and  former  German  East  Africa,  where  pasturage 
is  abundant.  The  new  regime  in  Morocco  is  likely  to  encour- 
age wool-growing  in  that  well-watered  country  where  Van 
Loo,  the  Belgian  economist,  estimates  that  40,000,000  sheep 
could  be  pastured.  Algeria  has  not  so  many  sheep  as  formerly. 

MOHAIR 

Goats  are  found  in  practically  every  country  of  the  world. 
Their  present  number  is  estimated  as  above  200,000,000.  In- 
dia is  credited  with  24  per  cent.;  Africa  with  15  per  cent.; 
Turkey  in  Europe  with  10  per  cent.;  Turkey  in  Asia  with  8 
per  cent.  Their  distribution  is  much  the  densest  in  the  Balkan 
States  and  Greece.  The  common  native  goat  is  kept  for  its 
milk,  meat  and  hide  rather  than  for  its  hair,  and  no  family  in 
Africa,  whether  Arab  or  black  native,  would  be  considered  of 
any  account  if  it  did  not  have  a  dooryard  group  of  goats.  The 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  23 


goats  around  Guinea  are  dwarf,  plump,  short-legged,  close- 
haired  with  short  horns.  Raising  Angora  goats  for  hair  is  con- 
fined to  the  white  settlers.  The  six  or  eight  millions  of  An- 
gora goats  of  South  Africa  have  been  the  great  source  of  sup- 
ply of  mohair  for  the  European  market,  the  chief  rival  being 
the  Turkish  domains. 

A  rough  estimate  of  the  caprine  population  of  Africa 
Goat  for  1918  might  give  in  the  neighborhood  of  40,000,- 
Census.  000  head,  of  which  about  a  quarter  are  Angora 

goats. 

Algeria   ........................................................  4,000,000 

Morocco    ......................................................  2,000,000 

French  West  Africa  ...................................  200,000 

Gambia  ........................................................  300,000 

West  Coast  .................................................  200,000 

Upper  Nigeria  ............................................  200,000 

Angola    ........................................................  50,000 

German  Southwest  Africa  ........................  500,000 

Union  of  South  Africa  ................................  11,000,000 

Mozambique   ...............................................  100,000 

Madagascar  ................................................  200,000 

Rhodesia   .....................................................  600,000 

.British  East  Africa  ....................................  4,000,000 

German  East  Africa  ....................................  1,000,000 

Abyssinia   ....................................................  7,000,000 

Somaliland   ....................................................  1,500,000 

Egypt  and  Soudan  ........................................  1,000,000 

Tripoli   .........................................................  500,000 

Tunis    ...........................................................  600,000 

Islands  .........................................................  1,000,000 

The  Tanner's  Council  estimates  49,000,000  goats. 

In  the  Abyssinian  districts  and  the  Eastern  Horn  of  Africa 
goats  are  more  numerous  than  sheep  or  cattle.  The  na- 
tive goat  yields  a  larger  quantity  of  milk  than  the  ewes 
and  also  provides  a  better  tasting  meat.  These  goats  are  of 
the  short-haired  variety,  and  usually  white,  although  a  black 
and  tan  or  pied  variety  is  not  uncommon.  They  are  herded 
together  with  sheep.  Aden  is  the  regional  market. 

Mohair  is  obtained  from  the  Angora  goat    (Capra  an- 

gorensis).  This  valuable  hair  is  used  for  railway  seats  and 
other  upholstery,  coat  linings,  women's  dress  goods,  auto  tops, 
carriage  furnishings,  rugs,  braids,  imitation  furs,  false  hair, 
plush,  velvet,  men's  summer  suits.  Hair  of  the  common  goat  is 
used  in  coarse  blankets  and  carpets. 


24  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


The  Angora  goat,  which  originated  in  Asia  Minor, 
Where  is  bred  principally  in  Asiatic  Turkey;  in  South  Afri- 
Found.  ca,  where  it  was  introduced  a  hundred  years  ago; 
in  the  semi-arid  southwestern  States  of  America, 
where  is  was  recently  introduced  to  clear  up  underbrush 
on  the  timberlands ;  and  in  Argentina.  While  the  Asia  Minor 
Angora  goat  produces  the  finest  quality  of  hair,  the  South  Af- 
rican goats  produce  the  largest  quantity  of  any  section  in  the 
world.  Although  the  Turkish  supply  was  wholly  cut  oif  by 
the  war,  nevertheless  exports  from  South  Africa  decreased 
heavily,  partly  on  account  of  women  curtailing  the  use  of  mo- 
hair as  a  war  luxury. 

Port  Elizabeth  is  the  chief  shipping  port  for  the 
Markets.  South  African  mohair  clip,  which  is  raised  on  the 

highlands  back  from  the  coast.  During  the  year 
1918  about  a  million  pounds  were  sent  to  the  United  States. 
Exports  from  South  Africa  to  Bradford,  England,  were  11,- 
273,995  pounds  in  1916,  and  3,577,848  pounds  in  1917.  Ex- 
ports from  South  Africa  for  recent  years  are  as  follows: 

1909  19,600,000  pounds £862,000 

1911  21,100,000       "       918,000 

1913  17,400,000        " 876,000 

1917  3,691,000       "       280,661 

1918  3,630,000  

The  price  of  Basuto  mohair  was  34  cents  per  pound 
Prices,  in  1918.  The  South  African  goats  yield  a  fleece  of 

about  3  pounds  each.  The  average  receipt  per  goat 
in  1913,  was  $1.02.  The  war  caused  a  slump  in  the  market  for 
mohair. 

The  camel  produces  a  fine  wool,  especially  adapted 
Camel  for  making  hosiery,  underwear,  shawls,  carpets  and 
Hair.  rugs,  a  valued  cloth,  fine  soft  brushes.  At  certain 

seasons  of  the  year  the  camel's  hair  loosens  and  is 
plucked  out  by  hand.  The  camel  of  Africa,  by  reason  of  his 
drought-resistng  qualities  flourishes  in  the  arid  regions  of 
the  Sahara  and  the  Somali  deserts,  where  he  feeds  on  the 
scant  vegetation  at  small  expense  to  the  owner.  The  north- 
eastern third  of  Africa  comprises  the  principal  habitat  of  the 
camel.  During  the  dry  season  on  the  West  Coast  many  are 
driven  down  from  the  Sahara  by  the  Moors. 

Possibly  the  total  number  of  camels  in  Africa  amounts 
to  3,500,000,  but  no  authentic  figures  are  available  because 
they  are  owned  mostly  by  the  wandering  Arabs  and  are  not 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  25 


listed  on  tax  books.  Enumeration  is  not  reliable  as  the  caravans 
move  from  one  place  to  another.  Estimates,  from  several 
sources  more  or  less  conjectural,  give  the  number  of  camels 
in  Africa,  as  follows: 

Algeria  204,715 

Egypt  100,000 

Eritrea  46,853 

German  Southwest  Africa 800 

Senegal   12,487 

Soudan   123,705 

Tunis   121,000 

Tripoli   300,000 

Morocco   200,000 

Abyssinia   500.000 

Somaliland   1,000,000 

German  East  Africa  10,000 

U.  of  South  Africa 3,000 

At  the  end  of  the  war  there  was  a  large  surplus 
Outlook,  stock  of  mohair  in  storage ;  the  number  of  Angora 

goats  had  greatly  diminished.  The  market  is  likely 
to  recuperate,  particularly  on  account  of  the  great  demand 
throughout  the  world  for  animal  fibres  suitable  for  clothing 
and  owing  to  resumption  of  former  fashions  in  dress  and  furni- 
ture. South  Africa  is  especially  adapted  by  climate,  topog- 
raphy and  vegetation  to  the  raising  of  these  goats.  Flocks 
have  been  introduced  into  British  and  former  German  East 
Africa  where  they  are  steadily  increasing. 

HIDES  AND  SKINS 

Hides  and  skins  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  commerce 
of  Africa.  They  are  obtained  both  in  the  coastal  and  interior 
countries.  Every  caravan  includes  one  or  more  camel-loads 
of  skins.  Countries  in  which  hides  and  skins  are  a  large  per- 
centage of  exports  are:  Algeria,  Morocco,  Senegal,  Nigeria, 
Union  of  South  Africa,  Madagascar,  Mozambique,  British  East 
Africa,  Somaliland,  Abyssinia  and  Tripoli.  Rhodesia  is  grow- 
ing in  importance  in  this  industry.  Several  of  the  colonies  are 
not  well  suited  as  habitation  for  domestic  animals,  e.  g.,  An- 
gola and  the  Congo,  where  the  severe  climate  of  the  summer, 
when  heat  and  humidity  are  intense  and  water  often  scarce, 
together  with  the  tse-tse  fly  and  the  epidemic  known  as  rin- 
derpest, create  conditions  fatal  to  stock-raising.  In  Tripoli 
lack  of  vegetation  owing  to  the  scanty  surface  supply  of 
water  prevents  cattle-raising  to  any  extent. 


26  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


The  world's  annual  production  of  hides  and 
World  skins  is  above  2,000,000,000  pounds,  of  which 

Production.     Africa  produced  in  the  year  1917,  about  170,- 

000,000  pounds.  The  British  possessions  in  Af- 
rica (especially  South  Africa)  produced  50  per  cent,  of  this 
total;  the  French  possessions  (chiefly  Madagascar,  Morocco 
and  Algeria)  produced  33  per  cent.,  and  Abyssinia  about  10 
per  cent. 

In  estimating  the  number  of  hides  and  skins  from  Africa 
it  is  important  first  to  enumerate  the  number  of  domestic  ani- 
mals. The  sheep  census  has  been  given  as  approximately  74,- 
000,000,  and  goats  roughly  as  40,000,000.  The  total  number 
of  cattle  in  Africa  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  45,000,000.  The 
estimate  for  the  world  total  of  cattle  is  425,000,000,  India  hav- 
ing first  place  in  distribution,  United  States  second,  Russia 
third.  Africa  ranks  fourth,  having  about  10  per  cent,  of  total. 

ESTIMATED  NUMBER  OF  CATTLE  IN  AFRICA,  1920 

Algeria  1,100,000 

Morocco   3,000,000 

Rio  de  Oro  100,000 

Senegal  and  Sahara  2,000,000 

Gambia   100,000 

Liberia  200,000 

Sierre  Leone 100,000 

Gold  Coast  100,000 

Dahomey 100,000 

French   Guinea   500,000 

Nigeria  3,500,000 

Togoland   75,000 

Congo   100,000 

Kameroons  50,000 

Angola   100,000 

German  Southwest  Africa 300,000 

Union  of  South  Africa 8,500,000 

Rhodesia  1,500,000 

Madagascar  6,750,000 

Mozambique   500,000 

German  East  Africa  2,000,000 

British  East  Africa 2,500,000 

Somaliland   1,500,000 

Abyssinia   7,000,000 

Tunis  200,000 

Egypt  and  Soudan 1,000,000 

Tripoli  200,000 

Islands  100,000 

These  estimates  are  conservative. 

Tanner's  Council  (1920)  estimates  73,000,000  cattle. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  27 


The  motor  car  seems  to  have  doomed  the  horse  the  world 
over  and  yet  there  are  probably  more  of  the  equine  family  in 
Africa  today  than  ever  before.  Many  mules  have  recently  been 
shipped  to  Africa  from  America. 

From  fragmentary  figures  a  conjectural  estimate  may  be 
made  of  1,500,000  horses  in  Africa,  and  3,000,000  mules  and 
asses.  The  zebra  has  been  domesticated  and  has  been  crossed 
with  the  mare,  producing  the  zulebra.  Horses  do  not  thrive 
in  tropical  Africa  on  account  of  the  tse-tse  fly. 

CENSUS  OF  HORSES  IN  AFRICA 

Union  of  South  Africa (1913) 719,500 

French  Guinea  (1914) 3,000 

Tunis (1916) 31,000 

Basutoland   (1911) 86,600 

Swaziland   (1917) 600 

Algeria  (1917) 250,000 

Egypt   (1917) 50,000 

MULES  AND  ASSES  IN  AFRICA 

Union  of  South  Africa (1917) 450,000  mules  and  asses 

Tunis (1917) 225,000  mules  and  asses 

Algeria (1917) 233,000  asses 

Algeria (1917). .....192,000  mules 

Nigeria (1917) 25,000  mules  and  asses 

Senegal (1917) 50,000      " 

Egypt (1917) 700,000      " 

Nyassaland  had  in  1917  only  266  horses,  mules  and  asses. 

In  Egypt  are  many  mules  bred  from  Abyssinian  mares 
and  sired  by  donkeys.  These  mules  average  13  hands  high 
and  will  carry  200  pounds  on  rough  trail.  They  are  worth  on 
an  average,  $28. 

Africa,  in  proportion  to  its  immense  extent  is 
Cattle-Raising,  very  sparsely  populated ;  the  chief  cattle-rais- 
ing district  lies  in  the  southeastern  section,  as 
in  the  case  of  New  Zealand,  Australia,  India  and  South  Amer- 
ica. In  Southeast  Africa  there  are  about  25  cattle  to  every  ten 
inhabitants,  while  in  Uruguay  there  are  75  to  every  ten  in- 
habitants; in  Russia  30. 

The  fencing  item  of  expense  is  an  important  reason  for 
the  want  of  interest  in  cattle-raising  on  the  African  veldt.  Ad- 
ditional reasons  why  the  cattle  regions  have  not  expanded  to 
the  saturation  point  in  the  African  grazing  uplands  are  found 
in  the  ravages  of  the  tse-tse  fly  and  other  plagues ;  in  the  fact 


28  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


that  the  Mohammedan  population  eats  little  beef;  the  liability 
to  attack  by  marauding  wild  beasts.  But  when  man  has  mas- 
tered the  African  continent,  overcome  insect  pests  and  crossed 
it  with  railroads  as  he  has  the  western  prairies  of  the  United 
States  there  is  no  reason  why  the  savannahs,  veldts,  plateaux 
and  steppes  of  Africa  should  not  provide  grazing  land  for  a 
quarter  of  the  world's  cattle;  notwithstanding  the  claim  of 
Steffanson,  the  Arctic  explorer,  that  the  grasses 'and  mosses  of 
boreal  regions  are  destined  as  the  future  grazing  fields  of  the 
beef  creatures  of  the  world ;  and  that  the  tendency  of  civiliza- 
tion is  toward  the  poles. 

The  breeds  of  cattle  producing  hides  in  Africa  are 
Breeds  of  of  four  principal  kinds.  Those  of  Algeria  and 
Cattle.  Tunis  are  largely  imported  Swiss  stock.  In  Egypt 

and  Eastern  Africa  there  is  found  a  cross  between 
the  zebu  from  India  and  the  native  buffalo,  which  has  long 
been  domesticated.  Madagascar  cattle  are  of  the  humpbacked 
Indian  species.  Buffalo  on  the  West  Coast  are  small  and  red. 
Those  of  Nigeria  came  originally  from  India  and  roamed  for 
centuries  the  rich  grass  lands  of  the  inland  plateaux,  tended 
by  the  Haussa  and  Fulani  tribes.  *Hides  from  this  region 
formerly  went  by  caravans  across  the  desert  to  Mediterranean 
ports  but  are  now  mostly  carried  by  rail  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 
Liberia  has  a  breed  of  cattle  no  larger  than  Shetland  ponies — 
so  small  their  pelts  are  classed  as  skins  like  sheep  and  goats. 
Skins  of  small  or  young  animals  are  known  in  trade  as  "kips". 
In  South  Africa  Scotch  Shorthorns,  Holsteins  and  Herefords, 
standard  breeds  introduced  from  northern  Europe,  are  abund- 
ant. During  the  Boer  war  cattle  were  nearly  wiped  out  but 
had  recuperated  to  6,000,000  head  by  1914.  There  is  a  black 
native  buffalo  found  in  South  Africa. 

On  market  days  centres  like  Pretoria  and  Johannesburg 
have  the  appearance  of  the  Chicago  stockyards  from  the  mul- 
titude of  horns,  for  these  animals  are  valuable  not  only  to  pro- 
vide meat  for  local  consumption  and  hides  for  export  but  par- 
ticularly as  motive  power  for  transportation — unusually  prim- 
itive in  this  day  of  the  almost  universal  automobile. 

Tons  of  hides  are  brought  by  caravan  from  the  in- 
Quantity.  teriors  to  coast  towns  in  every  section,  often  to  be 

prepared  for  leather  but  more  commonly  to  be  ex- 
ported in  the  rude  condition.  African  hides  come  under  the 
head  of  "country  hides"  and  are  less  valuable  than  "packer 
hides"  from  large  abattoirs..  The  leather  trade  in  all  its 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  29 


branches  becomes  more  important  every  year  and  Africa's 
part  in  supplying  the  world  demand  is  steadily  increasing. 
Many  shoes  are  manufactured  by  modern  machinery  in  South 
Africa. 

Madagascar  exported  (1917)  6,000  tons  of  hides  and 
skins,  and  endeavors  to  maintain  an  annual  exportation  of 
800,000  skins.  v 

The  total  number  of  hides  and  skins,  including  those  of 
the  camel,  horse  and  wild  animals,  exported  each  year  from 
Africa,  is  probably  as  high  as  15,000,000.  The  Tanners'  Coun- 
cil estimates  the  average  annual  shipment  from  Africa  of 
cattle  hides  at  60,000,000  Ibs.;  of  sheepskins  at  44,000,000 
Ibs. ;  goatskins,  24,000,000  Ibs.  The  value  is  approximately 
$50,000,000. 

An  important  skin,  tanned  and  used  for  many 
Skins  of  purposes,  is  that  of  the  porpoise  or  white 

Wild  Animals,  whale,  exported  from  the  east,  west  and 
southern  coasts  of  Africa.  Skins  of  the  sperm 
and  whalebone  whales  are  also  tanned  and  exported  for  man- 
ufacturing purposes,  especially  from  Madagascar.  The  hide 
of  the  rhinoceros  is  used  for  making  stout  belting  and  whip 
lashes,  particularly  the  sjambok  employed  by  the  German  of- 
ficials to  stimulate  activity  of  indolent  natives.  The  crocodile 
skin  is  used  for  making  travelling  bags  and  fancy  articles 
and  elephant's  hide  for  trunk-making  and  heavy  casings. 
The  camel's  skin,  very  thin  and  strong,  is  used  by  the  Bed- 
ouins for  tent-making,  and  is  made  into  watch  and  spectacle 
cases.  Monkey  skins  go  into  jewel  cases,  linings  of  bags,  and 
other  purposes  which  call  for  a  soft,  pliable  leather.  Monkey 
furs  are  also  made  into  muifs  and  coat  trimmings  when  fashion 
dictates. 

Ostrich  skins  have  been  tanned  since  the  war  began  for 
hand  bags,  furniture  linings  and  wallets. 

Hides  and  skins  from  dryer  parts  of  Africa  are  con- 
Relative  sidered  best  because  of  their  toughness  and  strength 
Quality,  due  to  the  lack  of  fresh  grass.  Eating  of  much  green 
grass  seems  to  lessen  this  special  and  much-desired 
quality  of  leather.  For  the  same  reason  hides  and  skins  taken 
after  dry  months  are  preferred  to  those  obtained  soon  after 
rains.  But  hides  and  skins  of  the  coast  lands  are  generally  su- 
perior to  those  of  the  interior,  perhaps  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  are  better  treated  and  not  so  much  handled.  The  best 


30  RAW  PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


hides  and  the  best  meat  can  be  produced  on  the  same  cattle, 
whereas  the  best  wool  and  best  mutton  are  produced  on  two 
different  kinds  of  sheep.  But  the  poorer  the  wool  the  better 
the  leather  is  the  rule.  Hairy  fat-tail  sheep  produce  the  best 
leather.  The  best  sheep  skins,  rarely  weighing  over  three 
pounds,  come  from  Somaliland,  the  finest  quality  from  the 
"blackheads".  South  African  sheepskins  average  4%  Ibs. 
Large  Abyssinia  and  other  East  African  cattle  hides  weigh 
between  25  and  30  pounds,  but  the  average  African  hide 
weighs  much  less  owing  to  the  large  number  of  young  animals 
killed,  often  by  disease  or  as  a  result  of  the  locust  plague, 
their  skins  being  prepared  for  market  whether  they  are  killed 
for  that  purpose  or  die  of  natural  causes. 

Hides  and  skins  are  bought  separately  by  the  traders. 
Being  paid  for  according  to  weight,  rocks  and  other  heavy  ob- 
jects are  occasionally  slipped  into  the  folds  to  increase  the 
weight.  Many  flaws  are  often  caused  by  branding  marks,  dis- 
ease and  scars  from  injuries.  Great  want  of  skill  in  branding 
and  flaying  cause  much  waste  and  loss,  especially  in  the  Union 
of  South  Africa,  where  the  value  of  hide  bulks  less  largely  than 
it  should  in  the  list  of  exports. 

The  roughest  raw  hides  are  manufactured  into 
Uses  and  ropes,  whips,  lariats,  belts,  faces  for  mallets, 

By-Products.  rough  boots.  Calf  skin,  when  tanned,  is  used 
chiefly  for  uppers  of  boots  and  shoes,  but  has 
many  other  uses  also  where  a  strong  leather  is  needed.  Tanned 
hog  and  pig  skins  are  used  for  saddles,  harness,  straps,  saddle- 
bags. Horse  hide  is  especially  used  for  shoes,  saddles,  razor- 
strops  and  American  base-balls,  while  the  long  hair  of  the 
manes  and  tails  of  this  animal  is  a  valuable  article  of  commerce 
used  in  the  making  of  hair  cloth,  brushes,  bows  for  musical 
instruments;  and  curled,  is  used  for  stuffing  mattresses*  and 
cushions.  Cattle  hair  is  used  for  mixing  plaster  and  making 
roofing  felt,  while  hair  from  the  tails  goes  into  upholstery. 

Sheep  skins,  with  the  wool  left  on,  are  often  made  into 
rugs,  and  in  mountain  regions  into  jackets,  for  which  purpose 
African  skins  are  exported.  Goat  skins  are  also  used  for 
rugs,  both  manufactured  in  Northern  Africa  and  exported  as 
skins.  Goat  skins  that  have  been  peeled  down  the  body,  in 
rounded  form,  are  used  by  Moors  and  Arabs  for  water  bottles. 
Egyptian  sheep  skins  make  fine  soft  leather  much  used  by  the 
natives  for  their  comfortable  shoes  without  heels. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  31 


The  material  known  as  Morocco  leather  is  made  chiefly 
from  goat  skins,  tanned  and  dyed  in  a  particular  manner,  and 
often  ribbed  or  rough-grained  on  the  surface.  The  manu- 
facture of  this  leather  began  in  Morocco  and  the  Soudan,  but 
it  is  now  carried  on  in  America  and  other  countries.  The  col- 
ors used  are  chiefly  red,  brown  and  yellow,  obtained  from  su- 
mac, cochineal,  the  cuttle-fish  and  now  coal  tar.  Black,  green 
and  blue  are  sometimes  used.  As  goat  skin  takes  dye  better 
than  any  other  and  makes  a  rich  color,  goats  are  raised  in 
large  herds  in  Morocco  for  this  leather. 

Parchment,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  valuable  of  skin 
productions  of  Africa,  is  prepared  with  a  great  deal  of  care. 
It  comes  from  various  animals,  that  used  for  writing  is  mostly 
from  the  sheep  and  she-goat.  The  finest  quality  is  made  from 
very  young  calves,  kids  and  lambs ;  and  the  thicker  and  coarser 
sort,  used  for  drums  and  tambourines,  comes  from  old  goats 
and  sheep.  The  ubiquitous  drum  of  Africa  requires  a  large 
number  of  skins. 

In  1913  Morocco  exported  sheep  and  goat 

Exports  from  skins  to  the  value  of  $1,230,981,  and  hides 

African  Colonies,     to  the  value  of  $732,142,  which  may  be 

estimated  as  6,000,000  pounds  of  goat  and 

sheep  skins,  and  1,400,000  pounds  of  cow  hides. 

Algeria  exported  in  1913,  1,845,890  pounds  of  raw  hides 
and  skins,  valued  at  $1,304,400;  and  dressed  skins,  2,420 
pounds,  valued  at  $31,800.  Besides  these  Algeria  exported 
this  same  year  manufactured  articles  of  leather  to  the  amount 
of  84,920  pounds,  valued  at  $359,200. 

Egypt  exported  in  1913,  10,754,000  pounds  of  hides  and 
skins,  valued  at  £235,515,  which  fell  to  7,554,000  pounds  in 
1916,  but  worth  £417,820. 

Two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  buffalo  calf  skins  come 
from  Egypt  and  Soudan  annually. 

Abyssinia  and  the  Soudan  are  fine  stock-raising  regions 
on  account  of  their  grassy  hillsides  and  fertile  valleys.  Large 
quantities  of  hides  and  skins  from  Abyssinia  are  exported  via 
Messena  and  smaller  lots  go  through  Somaliland.  Nearly  half 
the  skins  shipped  through  the  Aden  market  come  from  Abys- 
sinia, which  exported  12,694,000  Ibs.  in  1916,  or  1,200,000 
pelts.  Another  estimate  of  the  goat  and  sheep  skins  exported 
ran  as  high  as  5,000,000  for  that  year. 

British  East  Africa  exports  about  4,000,000  pounds  of 
hides  and  skins  annually,  valued  at  $1,340,000  in  1915. 


32  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


German  East  Africa  exported  6,000,000  pounds  of  hides 
and  skins  annually  before  the  war. 

The  exports  of  hides  and  skins  from  Nigeria  in  1917,  were 
valued  at  $4,000,000,  which  would  represent  approximately 
10,000,000  pounds,  or  a  million  kips. 

In  1914  Senegal  exported  594,869  pounds  of  beef  hides 
and  229,042  pounds  of  sheep  and  goat  skins. 

In  1915  Tunis  exported  12,700  beeves,  valued  at  $638,- 
300.  In  Tunis  the  importation  from  the  desert  of  raw  hides  of 
large  sizes  quadrupled  from  1912  to  1914,  and  lamb  and  kid 
skins  increased  ten-fold  in  quantity.  Exportation  of  small  skins 
has  increased,  but  exportation  of  large  hides  has  decreased. 
The  small  skins  before  the  war  went  to  Germany  and  Austria 
as  well  as  France.  The  large  hides  went  to  Italy,  France  and 
Algeria. 

Somaliland  exported  hides  and  skins  worth  $550,000 
(1915). 

Live  animals  and  their  skins  are  among  the  important  ex- 
ports of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  that  afford  good  pasturage. 

Sections  of  the  Canary  Islands  raise  many  domestic  ani- 
mals, especially  goats,  which  thrive  both  in  the  hills  and  val- 
leys. These  animals  furnish  most  of  the  milk,  which  is  their 
chief  value,  but  they  also  furnish  many  skins  for  leather.  In 
1915  these  islands  produced  kid  skins  to  the  value  of  $40,000, 
and  in  1916,  to  the  value  of  $65,000.  Oxen  are  used  for  plow- 
ing and  hauling  and  supply  much  leather. 

The  exports  of  hides  and  skins  come  third  in 
Union  of  value  among  the  non-mineral  exports  of  the 

South  Africa.     Union  of  South  Africa.   The  following  figures 
show  the  rapid  increase  for  five  years : 

1909  1913 

Ox  and  cow  hides $1,500,000  $3,925,000 

Goat  skins  1,200,000  1,500,000 

Sheep  skins   2,600,000  4,400,000 

Average  exports  from  South  Africa  before  the  war  were 
18,000,000  Ibs.  of  cattle  hides:  32,000,000  Ibs.  sheep  skins: 
7,000,000  Ibs.  goat  skins. 

In  1916  the  Union  of  South  Africa  exported  58,387,000 
Ibs.  of  hides  and  skins  worth  $11,500,000;  in  1917  the  Union 
of  South  Africa  exported  hides  and  skins  to  the  value  of  $12,- 
779,497,  of  which  $8,819,164  worth  went  to  the  United  King- 
dom ?,nd  $3,908,213  worth  to  the  United  States. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  33 


In  Madagascar  since  1901,  the  preparation  of  raw  hides 
has  been  carried  on  with  that  of  canning  and  freezing  meats. 
The  3kins  are  prepared  with  common  salt  or  arsenic  salt.  As 
the  quality  of  the  hides  improves  with  more  careful  and  scien- 
tific preparation,  exports  of  this  product  will  increase. 

An  estimate  of  the  total  export  of  hides  and  skins  from 
the  whole  of  Africa  during  the  disorganized  commercial  con- 
ditions of  the  war  may  be  hazarded  from  the  following  incom- 
plete statistics: 

Export 
Value  of 

1915  Algeria,  Hides  and  Skins $1,660,186 

Prepared  Skins  129,888 

"      Senegal,  Hides  and  Skins 373,749 

"      Gambia,   Hides   57,959 

"      French  Guinea,  Hides  811,943 

"      Nigeria,  Raw  Hides  and  Skins  1,114,567 

Tanned  Hides  and  Skins 357,014 

Katanga,  Hides  10,000 

"      Union  of  South  Africa,  Sheep  Skins  4,137,950 

"      Madagascar,   Raw  Hides  2,672,222 

S.  Rhodesia,  Hides  and  Skins  191,800 


N.  Rhodesia, 
"      Durban, 
"      Mombasa, 
"      Fren.   Somali, 
"      Egypt, 
"      Abyssinia, 


« 


38,776 

1,839,527 

984,477 

461,517 

1,511,007 

1,500,000 


1916  Algeria,  Hides  and  Skins  1,767,494 

Prepared  Skins  121,204 

"  Tunis,  Hides  and  Skins 3,780,662 

"  Egypt,  Hides  and  Skins  2,084,922 

"  Nigeria,  Raw  Hides  1,187,888 

Tanned  Hides  1,434,482 

"  Union  South  Africa,  Hides  and  Skins 12,600,000 

"  Abyssinia,  Hides  and  Skins  3,500,000 

1917  Union  of  South  Africa,  Hides  and  Skins 12,779,497 

•'      Egypt,  Hides  and  Skins 3,800,000 

"      Nigeria,  Hides  and  Skins  4,434,930 

Great  Britain,  France  and  Germany  have  taken 
Markets,  hides  and  skins  from  Africa  principally ;  the  United 
States  receives  goat  skins  from  Morocco  and  part 
of  the  larger  hides  from  the  West  coast  and  South  Africa.  The 
skins  from  the  East  coast  are  too  small  to  be  of  commercial 
value  in  America.  These  hides  and  skins  usually  make  up  the 
cargo  of  slow-going  sailing  craft.  Casa  Blanca  in  Morocco, 
Algiers,  Port  St.  Louis  at  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal,  Lagos  in 
Nigeria,  Cape  Town,  Tamatava  in  Madagascar,  Beira,  Mom- 
basa and  Djibuti  on  the  Red  Sea,  are  important  ports  for  ship- 
ping hides. 

One  of  the  most  important  distributing  points  for  hides 
and  skins  is  Addis  Abeba,  in  Abyssinia,  where  many  bundles 


34  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


of  these  bulky  goods  come  from  various  directions.  From  here 
they  are  sent  by  train  to  Djibuti,  there  to  be  soaked  in  basins 
prepared  in  the  sea,  in  order  that  they  may  be  opened  and 
handled  for  baling.  A  full-sized  bale  of  hides  ready  for  ship- 
ment contains  from  25  to  30  pieces  and  weighs  approximately 
450  pounds.  In  October,  1917,  excellent  skins  were  offered  at 
Addis  Abeba  at  about  $9.00  per  score.  The  cost  of  transport 
to  the  coast  is  about  $50.00  per  metric  ton,  or  more  than  the 
ocean  freight  rates  to  America. 

The  export  of  hides  and  skins  from  Africa  during 
Outlook,  the  five  years  preceding  the  war  doubled  in  quan- 
tity. No  continent  unless  Asia  offers  better  pros- 
pect for  increasing  the  pasturage  for  various  live  stock.  The 
present  percentage  of  8  per  cent,  of  world's  output  of  hides 
is  likely  to  increase  more  than  on  any  other  continent.  Several 
of  the  native  tribes  appear  to  be  particularly  given  to  pastoral 
pursuits.  The  newly  opened  regions  of  Africa  are  largely  ir 
the  plateau  grazing  lands  where  there  is  an  abundance  of  long 
grass.  With  cheaper  material  for  fencing  an  impetus  is  given 
to  stock-raisers;  and  the  larger  shipping  facilities  following 
the  war  offer  inducement  to  this  industry,  not  to  mention  the 
fact  that  the  world  demand  for  leather  never  was  so  great. 
A  railway  from  Dakar  to  Bab-el-Mandeb  on  the  Red  Sea 
would  traverse  a  great  extent  of  territory  which  is  suited  for 
grazing  purposes  and  beyond  the  range  of  tse-tse  fly  ravages. 
The  United  States  is  rapidly  increasing  its  imports  of  hides 
and  skins  and  will  require  a  larger  number  from  Africa,  par- 
ticularly those  suited  for  sole-leather. 

South  and  East  Africa  have  abundant  wattle  and  man- 
grove bark  for  tanning,  also  chromium  for  the  chrome  process. 
Pasturage  is  abundant  and  leather  curing  seems  bound  to  in- 
crease. The  supply  of  hides  should  increase  as  fast  as  leather 
manufacturers  can  take  care  of  them. 

MEATS 

Meat  includes  the  flesh  of  various  animals  eaten  in  Africa. 
Many  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  depended  partly  upon  the  nat- 
ural game  of  the  country  for  their  food  supply  and  occasion- 
ally varied  their  menu  by  devouring  their  captured  enemies. 
A  few  tribes  were  almost  wholly  vegetarian  in  their  habits ;  but 
when  a  protracted  drought  cut  off  their  vegetable  supply  they 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  35 

appear  to  have  preferred  to  eat  one  another  than  to  submit  to 
the  exertion  of  hunting  wild  animals.  In  sections  the  antelope 
and  deer  families  supply  an  abundance  of  food.  Elephant  meat 
is  eaten  by  certain  tribes  and  many  wild  animals  hold  a  minor 
place  in  the  food  supply,  even  crocodiles  and  other  reptilia. 
The  Kroo  tribes  enjoy  their  meats  best  when  on  the  verge  of 
decay. 

Of  the  domesticated  animals,  cattle,  sheep  and  goats  are 
in  use  in  parts  of  Africa.  Among  Arabs  camel  meat  is  an  article 
of  diet.  Meat  as  a  food  is  somewhat  limited  by  the  fact  that 
the  Koran  forbids,  except  on  feast  days,  the  eating  of  beef 
amongst  the  great  Mohammedan  population  of  North  and  East 
Africa.  Cattle  in  Africa  are  used  more  for  draft  animals  in  the 
northern  section ;  for  their  hides  and  skins  in  the  central  sec- 
tion ;  for  beef  in  the  South  African  and  Senegal  regions ;  and 
for  milk  and  dairy  purposes  in  lesser  degree  in  the  Union  of 
South  Africa. 

In  Somaliland  a  man's  wealth  is  measured  by  his  flocks 
and  herds,  just  as  in  the  Old  Testament  the  patriarch's  riches 
were  expressed  in  the  numbers  of  his  camels,  goats  or  asses. 
In  certain  inland  regions  cattle  are  bred  chiefly  as  a  medium 
of  exchange.  The  unit  of  value  in  purchasing  a  wife  among 
many  of  the  native  tribes  is  the  cow.  A  man's  wife  might  be  a 
three-cow  wife  or  a  twenty-cow  wife,  according  to  her  charms. 

There  is  a  great  demand  for  preserved  meats  of  all  kinds 
among  the  European  population  and  "assimilated"  natives 
who  consume  great  quantities  in  those  centers  where  there 
is  no  slaughtering  done  and  while  on  their  journeys. 

In  case  of  preferential  or  retaliation  tariffs  East  Africa 
would  have  a  great  advantage  in  regard  to  trade  with  Great 
Britain  in  dairy  produce,  and  frozen  beef,  over  such  countries 
as  Denmark,  Holland,  Argentine  or  the  United  States.  South 
and  East  Africa  are  much  nearer  to  congested  centers  of  popu- 
lation than  Australia  and  New  Zealand  which  export  such 
enormous  amounts  of  cheese,  butter  and  frozen  mutton. 

While  there  is  a  large  export  of  hides  and  skins  from 
every  part  of  Africa  the  carcasses  for  use  as  food  do  not  meet 
the  home  requirements  except  in  regions  like  Morocco,  Sene- 
gal, South  Africa,  Madagascar,  or  Mozambique,  in  which  beef- 
packing  plants  have  lately  been  established,  and  are  now  ex- 
porting canned  and  frozen  meats.  Many  live  animals  are  ex- 


36  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


ported  from  Northern  Africa  to  Europe  for  use  as  meat,  and 
a  smaller  number  from  South  Africa  and  Madagascar. 

At  the  present  time  the  five  great  regions  of  Africa  de- 
voted to  the  raising  of  beef,  mutton,  or  pork,  are  South  Africa, 
Abyssinia,  Madagascar,  French  Northwest  Africa,  the  Sene- 
gal and  Niger  basins.  In  the  latter  region  is  found  the  Bornu  ox 
straight  backed,  with  enormous  upright  horns,  apparently 
descended  from  the  indigenous  wild  bull  of  Northeast  Africa, 
while  the  Fulani  ox  is  humped  and  has  short  horns,  being 
closely  related  to  the  zebu  (Bos  indicus)  of  India.  These  cattle 
are  inter-bred  and  thrive  in  regions  beyond  the  habitat  of  the 
tse-tse  fly.  There  is  also  a  stunted,  dwarfish  variety  of  cattle 
which  seems  to  be  immune  from  the  fly  disease.  These  cattle 
are  not  used  for  draft  animals,  as  in  South  Africa,  but  are  of- 
ten ridden  and  driven  as  pack  animals. 

The  Kaffir  tribes  have  ox  races,  riding  the  animals  with- 
out saddles  and  steering  them  by  a  rope  attached  to  a  small 
stick  piercing  the  nose  of  the  ox.  These  native  cattle  will  not 
give  down  their  milk  except  in  the  presence  of  the  calf,  which 
is  brought  out  at  milking  time.  Occasionally  a  stuffed  calf  is 
used  as  a  decoy. 

In  British  East  Africa  for  many  years  to  come  oxen  will 
be  the  chief  animal  for  tractive  and  agricultural  purposes. 
Their  size  is  generally  small  and  they  cost  about  three  pounds 
each.  For  stock  raising,  both  for  meat  and  for  working  bul- 
locks, the  Hereford  is  considered  the  best  animal,  being  ex- 
tremely hardy,  and  maturing  more  quickly  than  the  Polled  An- 
gus, another  favorite  breed. 

Sheep  and  goats  thrive  on  the  uncertain  forage  of 
Sheep  and  the  upper  and  lower  portions  of  the  continent, 
Goats.  and  form  a  standard  article  of  animal  food.  On 

the  East  Coast  and  Equatorial  belt  a  species  of 
sheep  having  hair  in  place  of  wool  is  raised  for  edible  uses. 
Every  colony  in  Africa  has  its  species  of  goat,  but  these  om- 
nivorous animals  are  less  numerous  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Equator  than  on  the  rocky  highlands  to  the  north  and  south. 
Goat  meat  is  rank  and  coarse  and  little  exported — at  least 
under  its  true  name — but  the  war  has  brought  about  a  con- 
siderable export  of  so-called  "mutton"  from  the  Union  of 
South  Africa,  British  East  Africa,  Morocco  and  Algeria.  Mer- 
ino sheep,  crossed  with  the  native  hairy  species,  promise  a 
good  future.  Cross  bred  sheep  yield  more  mutton  than  pure 
Merinos. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  37 


Among  the  Hindu  population,  which  is  numerous  in  East- 
ern Africa,  the  flesh  of  the  goat  is  more  generally  eaten  than 
that  of  cattle,  on  account  of  the  historical  sanctity  attached 
to  the  latter  animal  as  one  of  the  tenets  of  the  Hindu  religion. 
Goat  flesh  is  eaten  in  many  places,  kid  being  most  highly  es- 
teemed. Though  highly  civilized  people  are  prejudiced  against 
goat  meat,  the  flesh  of  the  Angora  is  equal  to  mutton.  Mut- 
ton is  not  so  large  an  item  in  world  commerce  as  either  beef  or 
pork,  although  it  is  the  most  nourishing  and  for  this  reason 
possibly  not  so  much  in  demand  in  warm  countries.  Mutton 
tallow  is  used  for  many  purposes.  Tallow  from  the  Angora 
goat  is  used  largely  for  candles.  Cat-gut,  used  for  the  strings 
of  musical  instruments  and  tennis  racquets,  is  made  chiefly 
from  the  intestines  of  sheep  which  are  also  exported  for  sau- 
sage casings  in  America. 

In  Somaliland  leopards  and  jackals  prey  upon  the  flocks 
of  goat  and  sheep,  now  that  the  lion  has  been  largely  exter- 
minated. Sheep  raised  around  the  desert  oases  grow  very  fat 
and  furnish  a  superior  quality  of  meat. 

Pigs  do  not  prosper  under  the  intense  heat  of  the 
Pork,  tropics  where  vegetable  oils  are  much  more  in  demand 
than  animal  fats.  The  Christian  populations  of  South 
Africa  are  increasing  their  supply  of  pork,  and  bacon  factories 
have  recently  been  established.  At  Salisbury,  Rhodesia,  a  ba- 
con factory  was  opened  in  1914;  others  are  in  operation  in 
British,  and  former  German,  East  Africa.  The  Belgian  Congo 
has  produced  good  bacon,  claimed  to  be  the  finest  in  the  world. 

Pig  breeding  is  carried  on  by  the  Europeans,  as  the  Koran 
forbids  it  to  those  natives  of  Mohammedan  faith.  Mussulmans 
and  Buddhists  raise  goats. 

In  Tunis  the  exportation  of  pork  attained  a  value  of 
$81,500  in  1912,  when  France  was  the  principal  consumer,  the 
failure  of  the  potato  crop  having  seriously  affected  the  raising 
of  pigs  in  the  mother  country.  In  Tunis  pig  raising  is  increas- 
ing slowly. 

The  hogs  of  Madagascar  belong  to  the  primitive  Asiatic 
species  having  black,  stiff  hair.  Rare  in  the  Mussulman  re- 
gions, they  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  central  plateau 
near  Tananarive.  Hog  raising  is  facilitated  greatly  in  the  re- 
gions where  manioc,  yams  and  sweet  potatoes  are  raised.  Lard 
and  salt  meat  are  exported.  In  1911  an  official  decree  forbade 
the  killing  of  sows  without  authorization. 


38  RAW  PRODUCTS   OP  AFRICA 


The  number  of  pigs  in  Africa  might  be  estimated  at  3,- 
000,000  of  which  one-half  are  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa, 
the  remainder  chiefly  distributed  among  the  French  element 
of  Northern  Africa  and  Madagascar,  the  foreigners  in  Egypt 
and  the  Chinese  along  the  East  Coast.  There  are  many  wild 
boars  in  the  jungles. 

INCOMPLETE  SWINE  CENSUS  OF  AFRICA 

Algeria..                        .(Dec.  31,  1912) 114,000 

Union  of  South  Africa (1917) 1,300,000 

Azores  and  Madeira  Islands (1900) 93,000 

East  Africa  Protectorate  (Mar.  31,  1915) 4,000 

Egypt   (1916) 9,000 

German  East  Africa (1913) 6,000 

German  South  West  'Africa (1913) 8,000 

Madagascar   (1917) 600,000 

Mauritius  (1913) 17,000 

Morocco    (Western) (1916-17) 51,000 

Nyassaland  Protectorate   (1916) 24,000 

Rhodesia    (1911) 2,000 

Swaziland  (March  31,  1916) 9,000 

Tunis  (April  30,  1916) 10,000 

Uganda  Protectorate (1914) 1,000 

Many  head  of  cattle  are  driven  from  Rho- 
Production by  desia  to  the  Johannesburg  market;  in  1917 
Countries.  their  value  was  £136,000.  Cattle  on  the 

ranches  in  this  country  have  steadily  in- 
creased and  exports  grow  with  better  breeding.  The  Rhodesia 
Meat  Packing  Company,  capitalized  at  $500,000,  was  opened 
in  1918.  This  ranch,  on  which  there  were  66,000  head  of 
cattle,  extends  over  3,500,000  acres.  A  herd  of  pedigreed 
short-horned  cattle  to  supply  the  large  local  demand  for  breed- 
ing stock  is  constantly  kept  up  by  importations  from  Great 
Britain. 

Morocco  has  many  rivers  coming  down  from  the  Atlas 
Mountains,  affording  an  abundant  supply  of  water,  a  moist 
climate  and  rich  soil,  which  furnish  good  pasturage,  so  that 
the  country  is  well  adapted  to  the  raising  of  cattle.  Van  Loo, 
a  Belgian  economist,  estimates  that  the  plateau  of  Morocco 
would  sustain  4,000,000  sheep,  10,000,000  goats,  6,000,- 
000  cattle.  In  1913  Morocco  exported  oxen  to  value  of  $243,- 
000. 

Conditions  for  cattle  raising  on  a  large  scale  in  upper 
Egypt  are  favorable.  Although  sheep  breeding  cannot  be  said 


RAW  PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  39 


to  be  very  important,  the  wool  output  doubled  during  the  war. 
Sheep  graze  along  the  canal  banks  or  are  fed  on  Egyptian 
clover  (berseem).  The  best  are  raised  on  the  natural  pastur- 
age in  the  north  of  the  delta  and  along  the  Mariut  coast  region. 

Next  to  wine  the  principal  exports  of  Algeria  are  sheep 
and  oxen,  also  raised  in  Tripoli  and  Tunis. 

On  the  large  plateaux  around  Ruanda  and  Urunda  there 
are  millions  of  head  of  cattle  and  other  live  stock,  nearly  all 
in  the  hands  of  natives ;  Germans  formerly  took  the  hides,  ex- 
porting about  $1,000,000  worth  in  1912.  The  grass  in  this 
region  is  too  long  for  sheep. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  oxen  in  Senegal,  the 
Senegal,  humped  ox,  the  large  ox  without  a  hump  and  the 

small  ox.  The  Mauretanians  devote  themselves  al- 
most entirely  to  stock-raising.  The  fertile  meadows  of  the  Ni- 
ger and  Senegal  river  basins  afford  pasturage  for  large  herds 
controlled  by  Arabs,  who  migrate  to  and  fro  with  their  flocks 
of  cattle,  oxen,  sheep,  asses  and  camels.  The  two  races  of 
shepherds  in  West  Africa  are  the  Moors  of  the  white  stock 
and  the  Fellatahs  of  the  native  stock.  Herds  are  owned  in  com- 
mon by  the  native  tribes. 

Paucity  of  cattle  in  Angola  is  due  to  the  problem  of  feed- 
ing them  in  the  dry  season  and  to  the  fact  that  cattle  are  not 
bred  for  milking. 

Stock  raising,  including  beef,  sheep  and  goats,  is  the 
most  important  industry  of  Abyssinia.  The  Ethiopian  steer  or 
zebu  possesses  a  fatty  hump,  and  attains  a  weight  ranging 
from  770  to  880  pounds.  Flesh  of  the  goat  is  preferred  to  that 
of  the  sheep  and  it  is  very  cheap,  being  purchased  for  38  cents 
to  $1.54  per  animal. 

The  "bovine"  population  is  one  of  the  principal 
Madagascar,  sources  of  wealth  in  Madagascar.  Stock-rais- 
ing is  carried  on  almost  entirely  by  natives  who 
shepherd  their  flocks  out-of-doors  the  year  round.  The  most 
important  cattle  are  the  humped  zebus  from  India,  intro- 
duced several  centuries  ago  and  now  perfectly  acclimated. 
Their  principal  characteristics  are  a  hump  on  the  withers; 
long  horns  generally  forming  a  lyre;  fawn  colored,  more  or 
less  dark,  thick  skin  with  stiff  hair.  There  is  also  a  variety 
without  horns  called  "bory",  often  used  for  hauling  loads. 


40  RAW  PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


The  height  of  Madagascar  cattle  is  below  the  average  of 
those  of  Europe;  the  average  weight  is  from  600  to  700  pounds. 
Wild  cattle  are  numerous  in  Madagascar,  generally  running 
in  bands  of  50  to  100  and  taking  possession  of  a  valley.  They 
fatten  very  easily  either  in  the  pasture  or  stable.  The  yield 
in  meat  varies  from  55  to  62  per  cent.  net.  Preparation  of  lards 
and  fats  for  new  cooking  substitutes  is  developing  appreci- 
ably. The  local  annual  consumption  of  beef  is  estimated  at 
270,000  head  and  the  export,  principally  to  France  and  her 
colonies,  at  160,000.  Six  factories  for  preserving  beef  are 
installed  in  Madagascar,  which  turned  out  over  8,000  tons  of 
frozen  beef  in  1917,  and  5,500  tons  of  canned  beef.  The  in- 
dustry is  rapidly  expanding. 

Sheep  raising  is  not  very  extensive  in  Madagascar.  The 
species  of  the  Island  belongs  to  the  "big  tails"  of  Asia.  The 
Sakalava  are  not  sheep  raisers  on  account  of  their  religion 
which  forbids  eating  this  meat. 

The  frozen  meat  industry  in  South  Africa  took 
South  Africa,  rapid  strides  during  the  war  and  had  been  on 
a  steady  increase  for  12  years  before  the  war, 
during  which  time  imports  of  beef  and  mutton  had  been  re- 
duced from  $14,239,852  to  $2,934.  The  fresh  and  frozen  meat 
exported  from  South  Africa  increased  from  17,749,873  pounds 
in  1916,  to  47,253,956  pounds  in  1917.  The  meat-canning  in- 
dustry was  largely  stimulated  by  war  demands,  and  canned 
meats  have  become  one  of  the  important  exports. 

Horses  are  not  conspicuously  abundant  in  Africa. 
Horses  Camels  and  oxen  take  their  places.  Many  army 

and  Mules,     mounts  were  bred  in  South  Africa.  Horses  do  not 

thrive  within  the  tse-tse  fly  belt,  but  are  increas- 
ing in  Madagascar  where  there  are  few  ailments.  A  cross  be- 
tween mule  and  zebra  produces  a  zulebra,  immune  to  the 
tse-tse  fly. 

Horse  raising  is  not  an  industry  in  Tunis,  but  each  land- 
owner has  a  horse  or  mare.  The  horses  of  the  north  are  said 
to  be  the  finest  in  quality,  resembling  the  Arabian  steed.  Mules 
are  numerous  and  much  used  for  drayage.  The  ass  is  one  of  the 
household  and  thrives  under  pitiless  chastisement.  He  is  very 
useful  in  cultivating  the  oases. 

Two  thousand  head  of  mules  were  imported  into  Tunis 
during  1913.  This  item  indicates  the  general  situation  in  Af- 
rica in  regard  to  the  importation  of  American  bred  mules, 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


which,  especially  since  the  beginning  of  the  war,  have  been 
shipped  in  considerable  numbers  to  Egypt  and  South  Africa. 
The  mule  and  the  donkey  are  the  common  beasts  of  burden 
for  short  hauls,  while  horses  are  more  reserved  for  pleasure 
riding,  sport  and  raids  against  enemy  tribes.  Horses  do  not 
thrive  in  the  tse-tse  fly  belt  but  are  increasing  in  Madagascar. 
The  possibilities  of  Africa  from  the  pastoral  point 
Outlook,  of  view  seem  almost  unlimited.  The  increase  of  pro- 
duction in  food  supplies  which  the  world,  with  an 
increasing  population,  so  insistently  demands,  will  in  the  imme- 
diate future  call  for  utilization  of  the  fine  plateaux  of  Africa 
awaiting  only  scientific  treatment,  to  become  remarkably 
adapted  for  grazing  lands.  The  drawbacks  to  stock-raising 
have  been  the  occasional  protracted  droughts,  the  prevalence 
of  the  tse-tse  fly  in  the  equatorial  regions,  the  epidemics  of  rin- 
derpest, epizootia,  and  East  Coast  fever — plagues  which  orig- 
inated across  the  Indian  Ocean  and  have  decimated  African 
herds  at  periodic  intervals.  Intermittent  plagues  of  locusts, 
particularly  on  the  borders  of  the  Sahara  Desert,  have  con- 
sumed vegetation,  resulting  in  a  decrease  of  domestic  grazing 
animals.  The  various  diseases  have  been  more  fatal  through 
scarcity  of  veterinaries.  Experiment  stations  in  all  parts  of 
Africa  are  devoting  attention  to  the  eradication  of  prevalent 
animal  diseases,  though  not  yet  entirely  successful.  Stock- 
raising  in  many  parts  is  risky  and  speculative.  In  the  upper 
grasslands  the  hyena,  in  particular,  is  a  serious  enemy  to  all 
young  domesticated  animals. 

Meats  for  export  are  raised  almost  exclusively  by  Euro- 
pean colonists.  The  native  flocks  have  been  mostly  confined  to 
tribal  consumption.  Native-owned  cattle  are  of  both  the 
hump-backed  and  taurine  species,  but  are  often  of  a  poor,  in- 
ferior grade  known  as  "canners,"  and  raised  more  for  hides 
than  meat.  This  is  particularly  true  of  Madagascar. 

The  native  buffalo  of  Africa  is  increasing  through  the 
protection  of  the  game  laws,  a  conspicuous  exception  to  the 
general  run  of  wild  animals. 

The  demand  for  oxen,  steers  and  bullocks  for  transporta- 
tion for  both  men  and  merchandise  throughout  South  Africa  is 
so  great  as  to  induce  the  raising  of  cattle  along  the  seacoast 
and  in  other  sections  where  it  is  unprofitable  to  raise  sheep 
and  goats.  With  the  great  droves  of  live  stock  in  South  Africa 
and  the  over-supply  of  meat,  owing  to  the  killing  of  so  many 


42  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


cattle  for  hides,  canning  factories  are  much  in  demand  to  care 
for  the  surplus.  As  iron  and  tin  are  found  in  the  country 
in  abundance,  factories  for  making  the  cans  may  readily  be 
started.  With  this  combination  in  good  working  order  South 
Africa  might  become  one  of  the  greatest  meat-canning  coun- 
tries in  the  world.  Abyssinia  combines  favorable  qualities  for 
stock-raising — climate,  rainfall,  cheap  forage  crops.  Experts 
foresee  a  great  future  for  Rhodesia  in  stock-raising  and  dairy- 
ing and  predict  another  Canada  there.  Another  favorable  dis- 
trict for  cattle  is  the  plateau  west  of  Lake  Nyassa  and  of  the 
Shire  river  where,  at  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet  large  herds 
are  owned  by  natives,  as  also  in  upper  Nigeria. 

The  Oxford  Survey  of  the  British  Empire  (1914)  says: 
"There  is  no  doubt  that  when  railway  communication  with  the 
seacoast  and  Lake  Nyassa  is  established,  the  stock-raising  in- 
dustries, both  European  and  native,  will  grow  rapidly,  both 
as  regards  the  export  of  live  stock  and  skins  and  hides." 

This  observation  is  also  applicable  to  many  other  sec- 
tions of  grassy  tablelands  where  there  is  equable  distribution 
of  rainfall. 

England  is  chiefly  dependent  upon  Australia  for  her  froz- 
en beef,  but  South  and  East  Africa  are  only  half  the  transport- 
ation distance  from  England,  which  gives  them  much  advant- 
age in  the  matter  of  cold  storage  food  supplies. 

-DAIRY  PRODUCTS 

Milk,  butter  and  cheese  are  minor  products  of  all  African 
countries  where  milk-yielding  animals  abound.  Dairying  is 
not  a  great  industry  in  the  tropics  on  account  of  milk  turning 
sour  so  quickly  and  the  lack  of  demand  for  animal  fats.  Many 
cows,  particularly  in  Northern  Africa,  are  not  subject  to 
"functional  gymnastics  of  the  mammary  apparatus,"  if  we 
may  translate  a  fastidious  French  authority,  but  are  raised  for 
hides  or  as  a  medium  of  exchange.  In  these  countries  vege- 
table oils  are  preferred  to  cow's  or  goat's  milk  in  providing 
necessary  fats.  South  Africa  is  the  most  important  dairying 
region,  though  East  Africa  is  progressing  steadily. 

Goat's  milk  is  in  common  use  in  the  Red  Sea  and  Mediter- 
ranean regions.  The  goat  yields  about  one  litre  of  milk  per 
day.  It  is  a  practice  to  drive  the  flocks  about  the  streets  and 
milk  the  nannies  at  the  customer's  door.  This  thick  milk  is 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  43 


considered  better  flavored  than  cow's  milk  by  the  Arabs.  Not 
only  the  goat  and  sheep  but  the  buffalo,  camel,  mare  and  jenny 
add  milk  to  their  profitableness  to  man  in  Africa  and  Asia. 

Next  to  milk,  butter  is  the  most  important  dairy  product. 
The  Abyssinians  usually  churn  in  skins.  Methods  in  most  lo- 
calities are  crude  and  rustic  but  modern  improvements  are 
coming  into  use  to  facilitate  butter-making.  American  cream 
separators  are  being  introduced  extensively.  In  Egypt,  mar- 
garine, made  largely  of  vegetable  oils,  was  substituted  for 
butter  four-fold  during  the  war,  on  account  of  the  decrease  in 
the  supply  of  natural  butter.  Egypt  exported  $30,000  worth  of 
natural  and  artificial  butter  in  1916,  and  cheese  to  value  of 
S3, 350.  South  Africa  is  the  center  of  butter-making  for  export. 

The  manufacture  of  cheese  in  African  countries  has  re- 
ceived great  impetus  by  the  ever-increasing  demand  from  out- 
side markets,  and  cattle  countries  are  contributing  an  increas- 
ing part  of  the  world's  supply.  Goat's  milk  makes  a  strong 
butter  and  a  cheese  with  a  flavor  resembling  Limburger.  A 
variety  of  Rocquefort  cheese  is  made  from  ewe's  milk  in  North- 
ern Africa.  Milk  from  the  camel  is  made  into  cheese  by 
Arabs.  Of  the  cheese  made  from  cow's  milk  the  Dutch  Gouda 
is  more  popular  than  the  English  cheddar. 

In  Egypt  cheese  was  on  the  conservation  list  during  the 
war  when  cheese  production  fell  off  throughout  Africa. 

One  of  the  dairy  products  common  to  India  and  ex- 
Ghee,  tending  to  Africa,  is  ghee  (Hindostani  ghi),  a  sort  of 
clarified  butter  made  both  from  buffalo  milk  and 
cow's  milk.  To  prepare  ghee,  butter  is  melted  over  a  slow  fire, 
then  set  aside  to  cool.  The  result  is  two  parts.  The  thick, 
opaque,  whitish  portion  known  as  ghee,  representing  the  great 
bulk  of  the  butter,  is  then  removed.  The  less  liquid  residue 
mixed  with  ground-nut  oil,  is  sold  as  an  inferior  ghee.  The 
Hindu  population  of  Africa  use  ghee  as  their  commonest 
article  of  diet,  as  an  ointment  in  their  frequent  ablutions, 
specifically  as  a  lotion  for  the  eyes,  and  also  in  religious  cere- 
monies. Old  ghee  is  highly  esteemed  for  its  medical  efficacy 
in  the  prevention  of  many  diseases.  More  than  5,000  tons  of 
ghee  were  exported  from  Africa  in  1918.  Abyssinia  and  Soma- 
liland  are  the  chief  sources.  Jubaland  is  the  center  of  produc- 
tion by  reason  of  the  fertile  valleys.  The  product  is  shipped 
to  the  Mohammedan  population  on  both  sides  of  the  Red  Sea. 
Somaliland  exported  (1914)  800,000  Ibs.  of  ghee  worth  $135,- 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


000.  A  small  quantity  comes  to  the  United  States  from  Egypt, 
Abyssinia.  Tripoli  and  West  Africa. 

Tripoli  produces  butter,  as  well  as  butter  sub- 
Production  stitutes  made  from  olive  or  cocoanut  oil.  All 
By  Countries,  the  Somalis  export  dairy  products.  In  1914 

Somaliland  had  an  increase  in  exports  of  butter 
over  the  previous  year,  showing  a  value  of  $26,000  as  against 
$16,800  in  1913.  Tunis  has  few  cattle,  but  good  milking  cows 
are  found  in  Gabes.  In  1914  Tunis  exported  cheese  to  the 
value  of  $5,700.  Abyssinia  exports  fresh  and  condensed  milk, 
butter,  ghee  and  cheese.  In  this  country  ewes  are  milked  in 
the  sheep-raising  district,  primarily  for  home  use. 

British  East  Africa  and  former  German  East  Africa  have 
a  growing  trade  in  dairy  products.  In  1913  German  East  Af- 
rica exported  752,429  pounds  of  dairy  products,  valued  at 
$74,000. 

Dairy  farming  has  become  important  in  Rhodesia,  where 
cattle  are  constantly  being  improved  by  breeding  with  im- 
ported stock.  Local  cheese  making  (chiefly  Cheddar  process) 
has  greatly  reduced  importation.  Rhodesia  is  predicted  to 
become  one  of  the  great  butter  and  cheese  countries  of  the 
world.  While  once  nearly  all  of  the  dairy  products  were  im- 
ported, Rhodesian  exports  in  butter  and  cheese  increase  year- 
ly. Cattle  owned  by  Europeans  now  number  500,000;  many 
are  of  pure-bred  stock. 

The  Union  of  South  Africa  dairy  products  have 
Union  of  recently  become  important  articles  of  corn- 

South  Africa,  merce.  Cape  Town  is  a  busy  market  for 

butter  and  condensed  milk.  In  1917  exports  of 
butter  alone  had  increased  to  2,979,224  pounds,  valued  at 
$953,931,  as  against  45,318  pounds,  valued  at  $14,497  in  1913, 
and  exportation  of  condensed  milk  has  increased  greatly.  In 
1913  the  Union  imported  3,893,036  pounds  of  butter,  valued  at 
$917,194;  in  1917  the  imports  amounted  to  26,891  pounds 
only,  valued  at  $10,468. 

There  are  butter  plants  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa,  with 
up-to-date  machinery.  Growth  of  the  butter  trade  is  due 
largely  to  the  Dairying  Division  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture and  to  co-operative  methods  among  farmers.  In  1916 
expert  butter  testers  were  surprised  at  the  splendid  condi- 
tion, appearance,  flavor  and  texture  of  South  African  butter 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  45 


that  reached  London.    It  was  declared  equal  to  the  best  and 
brought  from  192s  to  208s  per  cwt. 

In  1913  the  imports  of  cheese  amounted  to  5,586,244 
Ibs.  to  the  value  of  $814,847,  while  in  1917  the  quantity  im- 
ported was  513,306  Ibs.,  value  $141,941.  The  exports  of  South 
African  cheese,  on  the  other  hand,  increased  in  the  same  pe- 
riod from  451  Ibs.  worth  $92,  to  76,836  Ibs.,  valued  at  $26,- 
956.  Union  of  South  Africa  (1916)  produced  16,000,000  Ibs. 
of  butter  and  2,000,000  Ibs.  of  cheese. 

Before  the  Great  War  butter  sold  in  South  Africa  at 
Prices.  36  cents  a  pound,  and  during  the  war  it  rose  to  from 
45  cents  to  55  cents.  Fresh  milk  sold  for  6  cents  a 
pint  before,  and  only  rose  to  7  cents  during  the  war.  Con- 
densed milk,  which  was  13  cents  a  can  before,  rose  to  23  cents 
and  28  cents  after. 

Cheddar  cheese  sold  for  9d  to  Is  per  lb.,  and  Gouda 
cheese  sold  for  Is  5d,  in  April,  1919. 

The  emergency  of  war  threw  Africa  back  on  her 
Outlook,  own  resources  in  providing  the  essentials  of  living. 
Butter  and  cheese  production  was  tremendously  in- 
creased. Formerly  great  quantities  of  condensed  milk  were 
shipped  to  all  the  British  colonies  in  Africa,  but  home  produc- 
tion has  now  equalled  home  consumption  in  the  matter  of 
dairy  products  in  several  colonies,  and  the  production  promises 
a  continuous  increase.  A  large  export  may  be  expected  from 
South  and  East  Africa. 

The  best  dairy  products  come  from  those  regions  where 
live-stock  receives  the  best  care,  which  is  not  always  the  case 
in  African  countries.  A  better  output  would  result  from  feed- 
ing more  alfalfa  or  lucerne. 

POULTRY  AND  EGGS 

The  common  hen  (Gallus  domesticus)  is  found  in  every 
country  in  Africa  where  the  warm  climate  is  peculiarly  favor- 
able to  its  development,  though  in  most  places  it  is  confined  to 
local  uses.  Mediterranean  countries  and  South  Africa  are  the 
exporting  regions.  A  much  larger  quantity  of  eggs  than  of 
poultry  is  exported.  Fowl  are  valuable  protectors  to  animal 
and  vegetable  life  by  destroying  insects  so  prevalent  in  Africa. 

Eggs  in  Africa  are  used  from  hens,  guineas,  ducks,  geese, 
peafowl,  and,  during  the  Great  War  the  yolks  of  ostrich  eggs 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


have  been  dessicated  for  use  chiefly  as  a  foundation  for  whole- 
sale cooking,  as  in  bakeries. 

Hatching  eggs  by  artificial  heat  in  ovens  was  first  prac- 
ticed in  Egypt,  and  it  is  recorded  that  over  a  century  ago  100,- 
000,000  had  been  so  hatched  in  this  country.  Incubators  have 
been  the  outcome  of  the  Egyptian  oven  practice  and  these 
artificial  hatchers  have  grown  in  favor  throughout  the  world. 

Eggs  are  packed  to  ship  in  various  ways,  notably  in  salt, 
cork,  liquid  glass  or  varnished,  while  ostrich  eggs  are  dried.  On 
the  West  Coast  the  yolks  and  whites  of  hens'  eggs  are  mixed 
with  boracic  acid  and  shipped  for  preservation  in  this  form, 
known  as  liquid  eggs. 

Of  fowl  peculiar  to  Africa  the  Guinea-fowl 
Guinea  and  (Numidia  meleagris)  is  conspicuous.  These 
Pea  Fowl.  fowl  were  known  to  Guinea  and  surrounding 
countries  in  very  early  times.  In  their  wild  state 
they  live  chiefly  in  morasses  and  are  often  seen  in  flocks  of 
several  hundred.  Guineas  have  been  domesticated  and  were 
introduced  into  England  in  the  13th  century;  they  have  since 
been  adopted  by  many  other  countries.  Guineas  do  an  amount 
of  good  in  eating  harmful  insects  and  worms,  especially  by 
destroying  the  tse-tse  fly,  so  fatal  to  domestic  animals. 

Peafowl  (Pavo  cristatus),  the  cock  of  which  is  known  for 
his  unusually  brilliant  plumage,  of  metallic  blues,  greens  and 
copper  color,  are  said  by  Sir  Harry  H.  Johnston  to  have  orig- 
inated in  northern  Africa,  though  they  are  common  in  the 
Orient.  This  gorgeous  bird,  emblem  of  vanity,  has  been  in- 
troduced into  all  countries  of  the  world  for  its  beauty  and 
domestic  use. 

Penguin  eggs,  twice  the  size  of  hens'  eggs,  are  much  in 
favor  among  natives  in  Cape  Colony  and  German  Southwest 
Africa.  They  are  collected  from  the  adjacent  islands.  More 
than  400,000  were  taken  from  Bassen  Island  alone,  in  1916. 
The  eggs  are  palatable,  nutritious,  and  easily  digestible  after 
boiling  twenty  minutes.  Shipments  to  England  began  in  1908. 

On  the  East  Coast  of  Africa  eggs  of  the  hawksbill  turtle 
are  eaten  by  the  natives,  and  in  the  interior  eggs  of  various 
reptiles  are  relished  as  delicacies  at  dusky  banquets. 

Poultry  raising  is  being  scientifically  demon- 

The  Union  of     strated  through   agricultural   experiment  sta- 

South  Africa,     tions  in  several  African  colonies.     Particularly 

in  South  Africa,  since  1912,  immense  progress 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  47 


has  been  noted,  and  the  establishment  of  many  poultry  clubs, 
which  are  combining  fruit  growing  and  poultry  raising.  Wom- 
en on  the  farms  are  taking  charge  of  this  branch  of  farm  work 
in  rapidly-increasing  numbers.  The  warmth,  sunshine  and 
dryness  of  South  Africa  give  this  region  a  special  advantage 
in  poultry  raising.  Farmers  are  beginning  to  recognize  that 
pure  bred  fowl  of  good  laying  strains  are  one  of  the  most 
profitable  kinds  of  stock.  Such  breeds  as  Leghorn,  Ancona, 
Minorca,  Andalusian,  English  Game,  give  best  results.  Cape 
Geese  are  also  raised. 

The  progress  of  the  poultry  industry  is  illustrated  by 
recent  figures  for  imports  and  exports  of  eggs.  The  imports 
gradually  fell  from  a  value  of  $300,000  in  1912  to  $50  in  1917, 
while  the  exports  increased  from  $35,000  in  1912  to  nearly 
$200,000  in  1917.  The  export  trade  is  now  firmly  established, 
and  during  the  Great  War  South  Africa  furnished  a  large  sup- 
ply of  eggs  to  England.  Cape  Town  is  the  port  of  shipment. 
From  October  to  December  there  is  a  large  excess  of  eggs 
in  the  South  African  markets  which  is  the  period  when  there 
is  the  greatest  demand  for  eggs  in  the  northern  hemisphere, 
giving  a  decided  stimulus  to  production. 

Egypt  is  the  largest  exporter  of  eggs  in  Africa,  and 
Egypt,  has  long  been  a  contributor  to  the  world's  supply. 
Several  million  have  been  sent  annually  to  England 
during  the  war,  when  her  exportation  was  restricted  to  that 
country.  Domestic  poultry  have  been  raised  in  Egypt  for  many 
centuries  and  the  vast  number  of  eggs  produced  gave  rise  to 
a  colloquial  expression — "as  cheap  as  eggs."  Many  ducks  and 
geese  are  raised  along  the  water  courses  of  Egypt,  where  there 
is  plenty  of  short  succulent  grass.  Quail,  caught  in  nets,  con- 
stitute a  large  item  of  export,  more  than  550,000  being  export- 
ed in  1916. 

Morocco  and  Algeria  produce  an  immense  amount 
French  of  eggs  which  are  transported  to  France  and 
Colonies.  Spain.  Morocco  particularly  is  a  region  where  the 
unskilled  Mohammedan  element  find  an  easy  meth- 
od of  ekeing  out  a  meager  living  by  the  care  of  poultry.  Tunis 
in  lesser  degree  than  the  other  colonies  has  supplied  eggs  to 
France,  Italy  and  Tripoli,  but  this  output  is  diminishing  with 
improved  conditions  in  Tripoli. 

The  prolific  Malay  and  Mediterranean  breeds  of  fowl  are 
profitably  raised  in  Madagascar  and  Mozambique. 


48  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


Export  Figures 

1912  The  Union  of  South  Africa  exported  eggs,  valued $      39,000 

1913  Morocco  "  "       -    "     1,010,000 

"      Union  of  South  Africa  "  "  "     47,00o 

1914  Tunis    exported    2,149,664    Ibs.  "  "     30,500 

poultry  "     45,500 

"      Union  of  South  Africa  "  "     56,000 

1915  Egypt   exported   eggs  to  the  value  of 2,424,796 

Algeria  exported  eggs  to  the  value  of 396,229 

Morocco   exported  eggs  to  the  value   of 974,638 

Union  South  Africa  exported  eggs  to  the  value  of 103,990 

1916  Egypt  exported  eggs  to  the  value  of 3,259,618 

Egypt  exported  live  quail  to  the  value  of 28,000 

Algeria  exported  eggs  to  the  value  of 1,039,691 

Union  of  South  Africa  exported  eggs  to  the  value  of 182,000 

"      Morocco  exported  eggs  to  the  value  of 2,200,000 

1917  Egypt  exported  eggs  to  the  value  of 3,400,579 

Union  of  South  Africa  exported  eggs  to  the  value  of 193,000 

Morocco  exported  eggs  to  the  value  of 3,000,000 

The  great  increase  in  the  production  of  eggs  dur- 
Outlook.  ing  the  war  may  be  maintained  throughout  North- 
ern Africa,  but  the  most  notable  development  of 
the  poultry  industry  should  be  looked  for  in  South  Africa, 
where  the  productive  period  of  the  summer  months  could  sup- 
ply an  immense  amount  of  poultry  and  eggs  for  the  European 
market,  at  a  time  when  there  is  a  dearth  of  poultry  products. 
With  the  increase  of  refrigerating  compartments  in  vessels,  in- 
ducement for  the  exportation  of  poultry,  eggs  and  other  per- 
ishable foods  increases. 

BEESWAX  AND  HONEY 

The  hive  bee  (Apis  mellifica),  producing  the  commodities 
beeswax  and  honey,  is  classed  with  the  insects  (Hymenop- 
tera).  As  there  are  many  varieties  of  flowers  in  nearly  all  the 
countries  of  Africa  bees  thrive  throughout  almost  the  entire 
continent,  especially  along  the  water  courses  where  blossoms 
are  most  abundant.  The  different  flowers  give  different  flavors 
to  the  honey,  which  is  yellow  or  amber  colored.  Honey  is  gath- 
ered by  natives  in  the  Equatorial  belt  at  all  seasons  and 
brought  to  the  coast  for  shipment.  The  finest  honey  comes 
from  the  temperate  zones  where  flowers  secrete  a  greater 
amount  of  saccharine  matter  than  in  the  tropics.  Africa  ranks 
with  the  United  States,  Chili  and  Central  Europe  as  a  great 
honey-producing  region  of  the  world. 

While  honey  gathering  as  an  African  industry  is  com- 
paratively new,  honey  as  food  has  long  been  known  to  native 
tribes,  many  of  whom  are  keen  gatherers  of  the  nectar.  In 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  49 


this  they  are  often  guided  by  a  bright  green  bird  called  the 
bee-eater,  found  from  Madagascar  across  the  continent  to  the 
Atlantic.  Natives  do  a  considerable  business  hunting  wild  bees 
where  there  is  no  better  paying  field  for  labor.  Bees  have  been 
domesticated  for  the  honey  notably  in  the  Congo,  British  East 
Africa,  Angola,  Mozambique,  Abyssinia  and  Madagascar.  A 
favorite  hive  is  made  of  straw,  as  straw  protects  the  honey  and 
wax  from  the  sun's  heat.  A  popular  liquor  made  from  honey  is 
hydromel,  most  ancient  of  fermented  liquors  and  very  heady. 

The  chief  commercial  profit  comes  from  the  wax 
Beeswax,     in  colonies  like  Guinea,  Abyssinia  and  Madagas- 
car.    The  Greek  Church  requires  candles  of  100 
per  cent,  beeswax,  the  Catholic  Church  40  per  cent.   Much  of 
the  raw  material  for  these  candles  comes  from  Africa. 

Beeswax  is  often  adulterated  and  has  numerous  substi- 
tutes, all  of  which  are  grouped  under  "waxes".  Sealing-wax, 
shoemaker's  wax,  and  grafting  wax  are  prepared  resinous 
substances.  The  chief  substitute,  paraffin,  is  separated  from 
lubricating  oils  in  the  purifying  process,  and  resembles 
bleached  beeswax.  Other  substitutes  are  Japan  wax,  carnu- 
ba  wax,  pela  wax,  bayberry  wax. 

In  Abyssinia,  bees  are  extensively  kept  and 
Production  by  that  country  furnishes  much  of  the  beeswax  of 
Countries.  commerce.  The  natives  of  this  country  are  ex- 

cellent beekeepers,  usually  making  their  hives 
out  of  the  hollow  limbs  of  the  baobab  tree,  which  they  thatch 
at  one  end  with  grasses  to  keep  out  the  rain.  In  Abyssinia 
honey  is  largely  used  for  making  tej,  the  native  drink,  a  use 
of  the  product  common  to  most  native  tribes. 

Bees  in  French  Equatorial  Africa  are  so  numerous  in 
places  as  to  be  considered  a  nuisance,  and  from  February  to 
June  these  buzzing  insects  completely  cover  the  damp  borders 
of  wells  and  so  entirely  take  possession,  with  their  painful 
stings  as  weapons  against  intrusion,  that  inhabitants  can  draw 
water  only  at  night.  The  natives  throughout  this  region  have 
many  basket  hives  hanging  from  trees.  In  1845  wax  was  the 
principal  product  of  Senegal  and  wax  cakes  were  exported  in 
large  quantities.  The  industry  has  lost  much  of  its  importance. 

Bee-keeping  has  received  little  attention  in  South  Africa 

in  the  past,  but  is  now  encouraged  wherever  orchards  are  set 
out.  In  1918  a  trial  shipment  of  20  cases  of  South  African 


50  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


honey  to  London  was  reported  of  fair  quality,  but  more  suit- 
able for  manufacturing  purposes  than  for  the  table. 

The  Portuguese  are  especially  adept  in  this  industry.  In 
their  two  large  colonies  of  Africa  beeswax  ranks  high  in  the 
list  of  exports.  Natives  bring  the  product  down  from  the 
bush.  The  Mozambique  Company  exported  70  tons  of  bees- 
wax in  1913.  The  war  interfered  with  the  trade,  but  the  year- 
ly average  should  not  only  keep  up  to  the  mark  but  increase, 
as  wild  bees  flourish  in  extraordinary  numbers  along  the 
Congo-Nile  water-shed. 

As  beeswax  has  increased  in  price,  bee-raising  has  in- 
creased in  importance  in  Angola.  The  country  exports  both 
wax  and  honey,  but  pays  special  attention  to  wax,  which  has 
become  the  third  highest  item  in  the  commercial  list.  The  ex- 
ports have  reached  1,500,000  pounds  per  annum.  The  price 
since  the  beginning  of  the  war  has  doubled  and  now  sells  for 
nearly  $60  per  cwt. 

Export  Figures 

1909  British  East  Africa  exported  beeswax  to  the  value  of $  550 

1913  Morocco  exported  beeswax  to  the  value  of 138,000 

"      Angola   exported    1,790,643    pounds   beeswax 

1914  Portuguese  East  Africa  exported  Beeswax, 

through  Chinde,  to  the  value  of ,..  30,400 

Lorenco  Marque,  to  the  value  of 1,846 

Quelimane,  to  the  value  of 3,157 

"        Mozambique,  to  the  value  of 3,515 

"      Angola  exported  755  tons  beeswax  to  the  value  of 430,000 

1915  Gambia  exported  beeswax  to  the  value  of 1,611 

"      French  Guinea  exported  beeswax  to  the  value  of 82,402 

1916  Union  of  South  Africa  exported  wax,  paraffin  and  stear- 

ine  to  the  value  of 1,579,345 

"      Abyssinia  exported  1,500,000  Ibs.  of  beeswax  and  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  honey 

1917  Union  of  South  Africa  exported  wax,  paraffin  and  stear- 

ine  to  the  value  of 1,956,93 

"      Madagascar  exported  beeswax  to  the  value  of 245,793 

Addis  Abeba  in  Abyssinia  is  one  of  the  big  wax 
Markets  and     markets  in  the  world.   One  of  several  firms  do- 
Prices*  ing  extensive  business  in  this  commodity,  has 
a  contract  to  supply  wax  for  the  Greek  churches 
in  Russia,  which  use  many  candles  in  religious  services. 

In  October,  1917,  the  price  of  uncleaned  beeswax  at  Addis 
Abeba  per  farasula  (37 1/2  pounds)  was  about  $9.75  United 
States  money.  Uncleaned  wax  contains  from  20  to  40  per 
cent,  impurities. 

A  large  amount  of  the  wild  honey  and  wax  goes  to 

Outlook,     waste  annually  in  Africa  and  the  possibilities  of 

cultivated  honey  are  very  great.    As  demand  and 

prices  increase  there  is  a  greater  quantity  brought  to  the 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  51 


markets  by  the  inland  natives.  By  intelligent  conservation 
the  floral  regions  of  Africa  could  support  far  greater  numbers 
of  apiaries  than  are  now  to  be  found.  Scientific  and  system- 
atic methods  of  producing  honey  and  wax  will  greatly  in- 
crease the  product  of  Africa. 

Btes  make  more  honey  than  is  actually  needed  by  them- 
selves, and  in  the  warm,  flowering  African  countries  the  busy 
insects  often  accumulate  such  quantities  of  stores  that  if  they 
are  not  molested  hollow  trees  or  other  large  cavities  will  be 
filled,  and  comb  may  be  gathered  three  or  four  times  a  year 
with  abundant  rainfall. 

The  manufacture  of  candles  from  paraffin  within  recent 
years  has  impaired  the  demand  for  beeswax  for  that  purpose, 
but  the  demand  is  said  to  surpass  the  supply  at  the  present. 
The  expansion  of  the  fruit-growing  industry  will  tend  to  in- 
crease the  stock  of  domesticated  bees  to  facilitate  polleniza- 
tion. 

SILK 

Sericulture  concerns  itself  with  the  raising  of  silk  worms 
(Bombyx  Mori)  under  artificial  conditions.  The  first  essential 
is  a  stock  of  mulberry  trees.  In  Europe  the  leaves  of  the 
white-fruited  mulberry  are  preferred.  The  quality  of  the 
leaves  is  important,  as  the  worms  cannot  be  profitably  raised 
unless  fed  on  good  leaves.  But  in  Africa  these  are  not  abund- 
ant. 

The  world  production  of  silk  was  55,000,000  pounds  for 
1918.  China  is  the  leading  producer,  with  Italy  and  Japan 
contending  for  second  place.  In  normal  times  China,  Japan 
and  India  supply  about  66  per  cent,  of  the* raw  silk;  Italy  and 
France  19  per  cent.;  Asia  Minor  and  the  Levant,  15  per  cent. 
Tripoli,  Morocco,  Madagascar  and  South  Africa  produce  a 
small  amount. 

There  are  various  native  insects  in  South,  East  and 
Wild  Silk  West  Africa  which  produce  raw  silk.  But  the  only 
in  Africa,  silkworms  of  commercial  importance  found  in  a 

wild  state  belong  to  the  genus  Anaphe  (fam.  Eup- 
terotidae).  Wild  silk  is  weak  and  brittle  and  cannot  be  reeled 
like  mulberry  silk.  It  is  known  as  "waste"  silk  and  enters  into 
velvet  and  plush.  The  wild  silk  cocoons  are  so  scattered  and 
the  process  of  cleaning  the  crude  silk  so  long,  there  is  little 
propect  of  commercial  development. 


52  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


These  wild  silk  worms  feed  on  oak,  castor  bean  and  palm 
leaves  and  are  akin  to  those  of  Asia  which  produce  "tussah" 
silk  in  China  and  "Eri"  in  India.  But  the  native  Asiatics  are 
far  more  skilled  in  creating  silk  fabrics  than  the  Africans. 

Since  the  advent  of  Italians  into  Tripoli 
Experiments  in  much  effort  has  been  made  towarck  estab- 
African  Colonies,  lishing  across  the  Mediterranean  the  silk 

industry,  which  is  of  such  large  import- 
ance in  Italy.  The  city  of  Horns  was  said  to  have  8,500  hand 
looms  for  making  cotton  and  silk  cloth  before  the  war,  part  of 
which  was  destined  for  Egypt  and  Constantinople.  The  silk 
industry  appears  to  be  promising  under  modern  methods 
and  is  being  actively  encouraged  by  the  Italian  Government 
both  in  the  cultivation  of  mulberry  trees  and  the  breeding  of 
the  most  productive  species  of  the  silk  worm.  Under  the 
former  primitive  methods  the  eggs  were  often  hatched  by 
the  women  in  their  bosoms.  The  silk  weavers  have  recently 
migrated  to  America  in  large  numbers,  and  in  view  of  their 
ready  employment  and  higher  wages  are  inclined  to  invest 
their  money  in  America  instead  of  returning  to  the  parent 
country.  This  migration  has  reduced  disastrously  the  sup- 
ply of  skilled  labor  for  this  industry  in  Tripoli. 

Not  only  in  the  northern  Mediterranean  colonies  but  also 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent  near  Cape  Town, 
systematic  attempts  to  raise  domesticated  silk  worms  by  plant- 
ing mulberry  trees  are  being  undertaken. 

The  silk  industry  for  which  the  French  temperament 
seems  particularly  adapted,  is  being  fostered  in  the  African 
French  colonies  and  proves,  after  many  experiments,  to  be 
more  promising  in  Madagascar  than  in  the  northern  or  western 
regions,  although  Morocco  is  listed  as  a  center  of  production. 
Silk  is  very  common  in  Madagascar — most  of  the  natives  wear 
rabannas  and  lambas  manufactured  of  silk  and  raffia.  This 
weaving  is  done  by  hand  by  women  and  children  and  is  the 
oldest  silk  manufacture  in  Africa,  but  often  sleasy  or  loosely 
woven.  A  species  of  silk  is  also  reeled  from  a  giant  spider 
found  in  Madagascar. 

Sericulture  is  possible  in  Uganda  and  the  highlands  of 
Rhodesia,  provided  serious  efforts  are  made  in  scientific  lines 
to  encourage  it. 

In  Southern  Nigeria,  silk  is  known  as  "sanyan,"  and  is 
employed  by  the  natives  for  making  the  so-called  sanyan 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  53 


cloths.  In  the  markets,  the  complete  nests  are  offered  for 
sale,  though  sometimes  only  the  enveloping  layers  are  market- 
ed, the  pupse  being  previously  removed  and  eaten  as  a  deli- 
cacy. 

The  largest  demand  for  silk  comes  from  the  United 
Markets.  States  which  consumes  over  $1,000,000,000  worth 

annually.  But  no  silks  from  Africa  are  sent  to  the 
United  States,  except  specimens  of  their  silk  manufactures  as 
curios.  France  receives  a  small  supply  of  silk  from  Madagas- 
car and  her  Mediterranean  colonies.  Italy  will  soon  import 
silk  from  Tripoli  and  there  is  possibility  that  England  will  re- 
ceive shipments  from  South  and  East  Africa  in  the  not  dis- 
tant future.  But  at  the  present  stage  the  industry  is  essential- 
ly local  and  almost  negligible  in  world  commerce. 

An  increasing  number  of  substitutes  for  silk,  made  from 
wood  pulp  and  cotton  waste,  have  grown  in  favor  with  Ameri- 
can women  for  hosiery  and  gloves. 

During  the  past  dozen  years  many  experimental 
Outlook,  stations  of  the  English,  French,  Italian  and  German 

governments  have  been  trying  out  this  silk  produc- 
ing problem  along  the  coastal  regions  of  Africa.  The  wild 
silk,  which  is  so  abundant  in  many  sections,  does  not  seem  able 
to  compete  with  the  artificial  and  domesticated  products  of 
the  older  civilizations.  General  conditions  are  favorable  and 
may  in  time  bring  Africa  into  the  large  silk-producing  conti- 
nents of  the  world. 

OSTRICH  FEATHERS 

The  ostrich  (Struthio  camelus)  was  a  sacred  bird  in  Egypt 
kmg  before  Cleopatra's  time;  its  feather  was  the  symbol  of 
justice  and  truth  and  among  the  nomad  tribes  it  still  stands  for 
victory.  Many  carvings  of  the  bird  are  found  on  sepulchral 
walls  at  Thebes,  and  its  image  appears  in  the  ruins  of  the 
Temple  of  Karnak.  Zenophon  mentions  the  ostrich  of  Assyria, 
but  it  flourished  and  still  flourishes  in  Africa  chiefly.  The 
wild  bird  is  disappearing  before  the  persecution  of  man,  but 
the  domesticated  fowl  is  extensively  raised  for  its  feathers. 

The  ostrich  is  a  desert  bird.  Ostriches  dwell  on  the 
steppes  near  the  White  Nile  and  Blue  Nile  and  in  the  interior 
regions.  In  the  wild  state  they  generally  associate  with  zebras 
or  larger  antelopes  and  live  in  groups  of  four  or  five.  The 
nest  is  a  shallow  pit  in  the  sand  scraped  out  with  the  feet. 


54  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


Ostrich  feathers  obtained  from  wild  ostriches  on  the  bor- 
der of  the  Sahara  desert  have  been  for  centuries  one  of  the 
chief  commodities  brought  to  the  Mediterranean  coast  in  the 
caravan.  Pursuit  of  the  ostrich  is  a  dangerous  and  exciting 
sport.  They  run  as  fast  as  a  horse  and  when  enraged  are  more 
skilful  with  their  powerful  legs  than  a  Missouri  mule. 

Feathers  were  not  much  used  in  Europe  for  ornamental 
purposes  until  the  close  of  the  13th  century  and  were  first 
employed  in  military  costume  in  the  time  of  Henry  V.  They 
were  much  worn  by  men  at  the  close  of  the  15th  century,  and 
worn  by  ladies  first  in  time  of  Henry  VIII,  becoming  an  im- 
portant part  of  woman's  headdress  under  Elizabeth's  reign, 
and  ever  since.  They  have  ceased  to  be  worn  by  men,  unless 
by  Knights  Templar. 

Ostriches  are  fed  on  lucerne,  rape  and  other  succu- 
How  lent  vegetation.  The  eggs  are  hatched  in  incubators. 
Raised.  During  first  two  years  sexes  are  indistinguishable. 
The  birds  mature  at  five  years  when  the  male  feath- 
ers are  a  glossy  black  and  the  female  a  soft  grey  with  white 
wings  and  tail.  There  are  24  feathers  in  each  wing.  The 
plucking  box  is  made  very  solid  and  just  large  enough  to  hold 
one  bird,  for  the  ostrich  is  a  fierce  fighter  until  his  head  is 
pinned  against  the  wall,  when  two  operators  shear  his  wings 
with  a  few  painless  clips. 

The  principal  enemy  to  the  ostrich  is  the  jackal.  Al- 
though the  camps  are  surrounded  by  wire  fences  five  feet 
high  jackals  can  leap  over  the  top  or  burrow  beneath. 

Before  the  Great  War  the  annual  production  of 
World  ostrich  feathers  was  above   1,000,000  pounds. 

Production.  Ninety-five  per  cent,  came  from  Africa.  Os- 
triches are  also  raised  in  Argentina,  Australia, 
Arizona,  and  California,  in  small  numbers.  The  center  of  the 
industry  in  South  Africa  is  Oudtshoorn.  The  taming  of  birds 
began  in  1865  and  for  half  a  century  the  birds  have  been  con- 
served by  plucking  the  feathers  scientifically  and  humanely. 
The  wild  ostrich  was  in  danger  of  extermination,  as  the  birds 
were  destroyed  to  secure  one  clipping  of  feathers. 

Feathers  are  graded  according  to  value  which  de- 
Grades  of     pends  on  color  and  length  of  plumes.   The  grades 
Feathers,     are:  spadonas,  or  wing  quills,  of  the  cock;  fem- 
inas,  the  wing  quills  of  the  hen  which  are  distin- 
guished by  black  patches  at  the  crown  of  the  plumes;  primes, 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  55 


the  pure  white  plumes  of  the  cock;  fancies,  or  byocks,  the 
mixed  black  and  white  feathers  of  the  cock;  and  the  wing 
coverts. 

Raw  feathers  are  shipped  in  bunches  to  markets  like 
Paris,  Antwerp,  Hamburg,  London,  Rome,  Vienna  and  New 
York.  The  importers  scrub  them  with  soap,  then  curl  and 
gloss  them.  The  poor  and  short  ones  are  dyed.  The  long 
white  ones  in  natural  colors  are  the  most  valuable. 

The  Union  of  South  Africa  has  always  mon- 
Production  by  opolized  the  ostrich  industry,  and  before  the 
Countries.  war  the  value  of  exported  ostrich  feathers 

ranked  next  to  that  of  wool  among  animal 
products.  The  war,  however,  made  more  strenuous  demands 
for  necessities  than  for  ornaments — the  ostrich  industry  in 
South  Africa  waned  and  gave  place  to  the  production  of  food- 
stuffs for  men  and  beasts  of  burden. 

The  Union  of  South  Africa  exported  ostrich  feathers  in : 

1910 741,078  pounds,  valued  at  $11,000,000 

1912 999,704       "  "        "     13,000,000 

1913 i;023,307       "  "        "     14,767,935 

1914 775,325       "  "        "       6,600,000 

1915 948,945       "  "        "       3,818,860 

1916 452,000       "  "        "       2,430,000 

1917 219,000  870,000 

Somaliland  exported  ostrich  feathers  in: 

1901 3,851  pounds,  valued  at         $28,000 

1911 1,837       "  "        "  

1913 861       "  "        "  

1915 453  631 

Egypt  exported  49,218  pounds  of  ostrich  feathers  in  1911 

23,814       "         "       "  "          "   1913 

655       "         "       "  "          "   1915 

Soudan  exported  36,819  pounds  of  ostrich  feathers  in  1911 

12,948       "        "       "  "          "  1913 

1,105  "  1915 

Ostriches  were  introduced  into  Madagascar  by  an  Eng- 
lishman who  took  five  couples  to  the  island  in  1902.  These 
one-year-old  birds  were  acclimated  at  Tulear,  and  by  1916 
there  were  680  ostriches.  The  export  of  ostrich  feathers  to 
London  and  Paris  began  in  1909. 

From  1907  to  1914  production  increased  nearly  65 
Prices,  per  cent,  while  the  prices  increased  at  least  10  per 

cent.  At  the  close  of  1913  common  sorts  and  short 
stuff  were  more  in  demand  than  the  expensive  feathers,  which 


56  RAW  PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


cost  $200  per  pound.  The  fall  in  price  began  in  1914.  No  in- 
dustry suffered  more  from  the  effects  of  the  war  than  this. 
The  bottom  fell  out  of  the  market  completely,  and  feathers 
were  absolutely  unsalable.  The  number  of  birds  in  the  Union 
of  South  Africa  fell  from  776,313  in  1913  to  300,000  in  1918. 
This  reduction  was  accelerated  by  the  increased  cost  of  feed- 
ing the  birds  and  many  of  the  camps  were  given  over  to  the 
raising  of  Lucerne.  Before  the  war  first-class  birds  for  breed- 
ing purposes  brought  $2,000  apiece.  So  many  of  the  ostrich 
farmers  were  facing  utter  ruin  during  the  war  that  the  Gov- 
ernment appointed  a  commission  in  1917  to  recommend  meas- 
ures of  alleviation. 

Immediately  after  the  war  prices  began  to  advance  rapid- 
ly. In  April,  1919,  they  were  $10  per  pound,  although  the 
grade  was  very  inferior  to  that  before  the  war. 

The  raising  of  domestic  ostriches  is  only  half  a 
Outlook,  century  old.  During  the  Boer  War  the  industry 
was  completely  disorganized,  but  from  1905  to 
1913  made  rapid  progress.  The  Great  War  has  given  the  in- 
dustry a  severe  setback,  but  now  prices  are  advancing.  Fe- 
male fashions  are  approving  the  use  of  feathers ;  plumes,  boas 
and  fans  are  coming  back  strong.  The  industry  seems  likely 
to  resume  its  former  importance,  but  ostrich  farmers  will  be 
more  guarded  in  their  zeal  and  less  speculation  is  probable. 
Ostrich  farms  are  springing  up  in  several  of  the  British  colonies 
and  will  presumably  prosper. 

The  South  Africans  are  jealous  of  this  industry  just  as 
the  Turks  were  of  the  Angora  goat.  A  fine  of  $500  for  ex- 
porting live  birds  and  $25  for  exporting  ostrich  eggs  from 
South  Africa  has  been  imposed  by  the  Government.  Under 
such  conditions  the  industry  ought  to  prosper.  The  export  of 
wild  ostrich  feathers  from  Egypt  and  Northern  Africa  has 
steadily  declined  and  is  not  one-tenth  of  what  it  was  in  1875. 
As  wild  feathers  disappear  domesticated  birds  increase. 

IVORY 

Ivory  is  the  dentine  of  various  animals,  principally  ob- 
tained from  elephants'  tusks,  which  are  composed  of  three 
parts — the  outer  crust,  the  centre  or  heart  of  the  tusk  and  the 
hollow  interior.  Ivory  taken  from  elephants  that  have  been 
dead  for  some  time  is  of  a  dirty,  gray  color  and  inferior  to 
ivory  obtained  from  the  freshly  killed  animal.  The  tusk  is 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  57 


valued  according  to  size  and  regularity,  its  fineness  of  grain 
and  smallness  of  cavity. 

Commercially  the  tusks  are  divided  into  several  classes: 

1.  "Heavy  tusks",  the  most  beautiful  and  largest,  (some- 
times six  feet  long)  and  weighing  more  than  55  pounds. 

2.  "Average  tusks,"  inferior  in  size  to  the  preceding. 

3.  "Small  tusks,"  below  40  pounds. 

4.  "Bangles,"  which  are  round  and  furnish  arm  rings 
for  the  Indians  and  natives  of  the  East  African  coast. 

5.  "Ball  tusks,"  large  enough  for  billiard  balls,  and  hav- 
ing the  greatest  relative  market  value. 

6.  "Scrivelloes"  or  small  pieces  of  ivory  which  are  used 
for  knick-knacks  and  curios. 

7.  Bagatelles,  or  very  small  tusks  of  trifling  value. 

Ivory  enters  into   many  ornamental   utensils, 
Uses  and  mathematical  instruments,  dice,  billiard  balls, 

By-Products.  combs,  toys,  chessmen,  buttons,  buckles,  jew- 
elry ornaments  and  inlays  in  furniture.  In 
Japan,  China  and  India  ivory  is  much  used  for  carving,  and 
the  Japanese  especially  make  many  wonderful  ornaments  in 
miniature  called  netsukes.  Lonesome  sailors  on  whaling  voy- 
ages carve  scrimshaws  from  tusks  of  different  animals. 

Ivory  always  commands  full  value;  for  there  is  little  or 
no  material  wasted,  even  the  dust  being  available  for  polish- 
ing, for  making  India  ink,  or  for  the  making  of  "ivory  jelly". 
Natives  who  cut  up  the  tusks  do  not  receive  remuneration  in 
money  but  are  allowed  to  keep  the  ivory  dust  for  which  they 
find  purchasers  among  cattle  raisers,  who  believe  that  milch 
cattle  will  secrete  milk  more  abundantly  if  they  be  given  a 
solution  of  ivory  dust. 

Substitutes  in  the  form  of  celluloid  and  vegetable  ivory 
are  common  but  the  genuine  article  is  much  in  demand. 

The  annual  world  consumption  of  ivory  is  about 
Quantity.  1,250,000  pounds,  of  which  Africa  supplies  90 
per  cent.  Ivory  is  obtained  throughout  the  entire 
Equatorial  Belt  of  Africa,  and  hunting  the  elephant  is  a  favor- 
ite sport  of  natives  who  capture  the  beasts  by  hurling  spears, 
by  traps,  and  by  ham-stringing  the  elephant's  legs.  In  the 
earlier  history  a  considerable  quantity  of  ivory  was  brought 
from  India  and  Ceylon,  but  the  present  supply  of  Europe  and 
the  Americas  is  of  African  origin.  The  tusks  of  African  ele- 


58  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


phants  are  both  larger  and  heavier  than  those  of  Indian  ele- 
phants, and  are  obtained  from  the  females  as  well  as  from  the 
males. 

During  the  year  before  the  Great  War  60,000 
Conservation  elephants  were  slaughtered  in  Africa.  This 
Measures.  alarming  destruction  called  for  prompt  meas- 

ures of  conservation.  In  British  East  Africa 
tusks  of  female  and  baby  elephants  are  confiscated  by  the 
Government,  and  the  capture  of  tusks  of  less  than  30  pounds 
is  prohibited.  Tusks  in  transit  are  often  confiscated. 

To  avoid  destruction  of  the  elephants,  the  Congo  Free 
State  does  not  allow  them  to  be  hunted  except  in  certain  por- 
tions of  the  territory,  and  after  obtaining  a  permit  a  European 
pays  a  tax  of  $100  plus  $10  for  an  improved  firearm,  and  $2 
for  a  musket.  The  native  gives  to  the  State  a  part  of  the  ivory 
which  may  not  exceed  half  of  the  total  weight  gathered.  To 
protect  young  elephants,  the  export  or  detention  of  tusks 
weighing  less  than  4%  pounds  is  forbidden.  Throughout  the 
Congo  hunting  elephants  is  forbidden  from  October  to  May. 

The  caravan  trade  which  formerly  brought  many  tusks 
from  Equatorial  Africa  across  the  Sahara  desert  for  the  Eu- 
ropean market,  is  steadily  diminishing.  The  East  and  West 
coasts  of  Africa  are  the  depots  for  supplying  the  ivory  trade, 
the  largest  being  Mombassa  on  the  East  Coast  and  Boma 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Congo.  Marco  Polo,  the  great  Venetian 
traveler  in  the  13th  century,  states  that  there  were  more  ele- 
phants in  Zanzibar  and  Madagascar  than  any  other  countries 
of  the  world.  "The  amount  of  traffic  in  elephants'  teeth  in 
these  two  islands  is  something  astonishing/'  he  wrote. 

Elephants  living  in  the  regions  of  rocks  and  mountains 
produce  a  softer  ivory  than  those  living  in  the  plains  and 
marshes,  and  the  softer  variety  is  the  more  valuable.  A  con- 
siderable amount  of  the  ivory  yield  comes  from  beds  of  bones 
which  have  lain  untouched  for  hundreds  of  years. 

Ivory  of  the  same  district  will  often  vary  greatly.  While 
some  Congo  ivory  is  hard,  brittle,  white,  translucent,  other 
material  from  the  same  region  will  be  opaque  and  soft  in  tex- 
ture as  that  from  Zanzibar;  it  may  also  be  greenish  tinted  at 
the  nerve  centres. 

The  Governor-General  of  French  Equatorial 

Distribution  by     Africa  reported  recently  that  while  at  the 

Countries.  time  the    French    first   occupied  this  region 

a  considerable  stock  of  ivory  existed  there, 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  59 


this  stock  has  been  exhausted  and  the  ivory  exports  are  now 
comparatively  stationary,  amounting  to  about  160  tons  an- 
nually. 

A  chief  export  of  the  Uganda  Protectorate  has  been  ivory, 
sent  mainly  to  England,  but  the  trade  has  greatly  decreased 
since  the  war  began. 

The  yield  of  ivory,  which  was  formerly  the  leading  out- 
put of  the  Congo,  is  being  reduced  and  has  already  become 
secondary  in  importance,  but  the  increasing  rise  in  prices  will 
stimulate  a  further  and  more  active  pursuit  of  the  elephant. 
Exports  of  Ivory  from  the  Belgian  Congo  in  Tons 

1912  233 

1913  276 

1914  295 

1915  214 

1916  351 

1917  180 

Soon  all  the  ivory  from  Senegal  which  is  not  a  product  of 
the  chase  will  have  disappeared.  Ivory  has  been  exported 
from  this  country  since  1789.  From  1825  to  1837,  an  average 
export  was  about  24,212  pounds  yearly;  1888-1889,  the  aver- 
age was  6,109  pounds. 

Value  of  Ivory  Exported  from  West  Africa  in  1912 

French   Guinea $  30,423 

Togoland   8,555 

Cameroons   127,614 

Gambia  827 

In  British  East  Africa  ivory,  as  well  as  hippopotamus 

teeth  and  rhinoceros  horns,  has  for  years  been  counted  among 

the  staple  products.    The  last  of  the  elephants  are  being  driven 

out  of  South  Africa  where  they  do  much  damage  to  agriculture. 

During  1913  Great  Britain  imported  ivory  from: 

Egypt 2,456  cwts. 

German  West  Africa 87     " 

French  West  Africa  138     " 

Portuguese  East  Africa  159     " 

Tripoli   3     " 

Congo   263     " 


Imports  of  Ivory  into  the  United  States  Average 

Weight  value 

in  Ibs.  Value  per  Ib. 

1900 353,423  $    805,386.00  $2.28 

1905 627,819  1,642,958.00            2.62 

1910 592,446  1,597,287.00            2.70 

1911 534,300  1,343,555.00            2.51 


60  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


In  the  calendar  year  1914  320,184  pounds  of  ivory  were 
imported  into  the  United  States,  valued  at  $876,086;  average 
value  per  pound  being  $2.74.  (Figures  for  1913  were  706,705 
pounds,  worth  $1,796,878.) 

As  with  other  African  commodities,  the  price  of  ivory 

Prices,     has  had  wide  fluctuations.     The  average  figures  per 

hundredweight  for  the  quarterly  sales  of  billiard  ball 

pieces  of  all  grades  at  the  London  salesrooms  in  Mincing  Lane 

during  35  years,  were  as  follows: 

Cwt. 

1870  £155 

1880  90 

1890  112 

1900  68 

1905  167 

Commerce  in  ivory  in  the  interior  of  Africa  is  now 
Markets,  carried  on  by  caravans  under  conduct  of  Negroes 
or  Arabs,  with  funds  furnished  by  European  or  Hin- 
du merchants.  Very  rarely  the  leader  of  the  caravan  operates 
on  his  own  resources.  The  German  product  was  chiefly  shipped 
from  Bagawayo  and  Pangani;  the  ports  for  British  ivory  are 
Mombasa  and  Kismayu.  While  Bagawayo  was  formerly  the 
most  important  of  the  ports,  Mombasa  has  recently  made  very 
rapid  headway. 

The  striking  change  in  the  location  of  the  chief  distribut- 
ing point  in  Europe  for  ivory  is  shown  by  a  comparison  of  stat- 
istics for  1908,  and  for  a  date  20  years  earlier.  While  in  1888 
the  annual  sales  of  ivory  were  373  tons  in  London  and  but  6 
tons  in  Antwerp,  in  1908,  sales  on  the  London  market  had 
fallen  to  214  tons,  while  in  Antwerp  227  tons  of  ivory  were 
sold.  This  change  in  markets  is  of  course  due  to  the  large 
exportation  in  recent  years  from  the  Belgian  Congo. 

The  supremacy  of  Antwerp  as  the  ivory  market  is  shown 
by  figures  for  1913: 

Ivory  Sold  in  1913   (Kilograms) 

Antwerp  London  Liverpool 

3913  454,776  236,250  12,250 

During  1919  Antwerp  received  276,500  kilograms. 

The  output  of  ivory  in  Africa  naturally  diminished 
Outlook,  on  account  of  war,  but  the  steady  reduction  in  the 
number  of  elephants  must  soon  be  apparent  in  a 
decreased  total  yield  of  this  product  because  of  the  long  period 
required  for  the  reproduction  of  these  pachyderms.  In  unex- 
plored regions  there  are  beds  of  ivory  bones  yet  untouched, 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  61 


but  the  rapid  opening  up  of  the  country  will  disclose  all  sources 
of  supply,  whether  from  the  living  animals  or  their  bleached 
remains.  In  spite  of  the  conservation  efforts  a  gradual  decline 
in  the  ivory  production  of  Africa  may  be  expected.  The  unex- 
plored regions  in  the  Congo  basin  and  the  wilds  of  Abyssinia 
are  the  most  lucrative  regions  to  exploit.  One  hundred  years 
ago,  after  the  British  discontinuance  of  the  slave  trade,  ivory 
was  the  best  known  product  which  came  from  Africa  to  Am- 
erica. But  this,  today,  has  been  superseded  by  ten  or  a  dozen 
more  profitable  commodities  coming  out  of  the  dark  continent. 
It  will  not  be  many  years  before  the  elephant,  like  the  Ameri- 
can bison,  will  require  most  rigid  protective  laws  to  prevent  his 
extinction. 

SPONGES 

Mankind  obtains  its  supply  of  sponges  from  two  principal 
areas — the  Mediterranean  and  Caribbean  seas.  The  total  sponge 
output  has  a  value  of  $5,000,000  per  year.  More  than  one-half 
of  this  supply  comes  from  the  Mediterranean  sea  and  nearly 
one-half  of  this  latter  amount  comes  from  the  African  shores. 
Sponge  fishing  is  an  important  industry  of  all  African  coun- 
tries bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  and  in  lesser  degree  on 
the  Red  Sea,  where  quality  is  inferior,  though  quantity  is 
abundant.  The  Adriatic  Gulf,  ^Egean  Sea  and  the  coast  of 
Tripoli  produce  the  finest  sponges.  Of  the  African  supply 
Tunis  contributes  the  largest  share,  in  value  upward  of  $500,- 
000  per  annum. 

The  sponge  (Myxospongsis)  belongs  to  the  protozoa  fam- 
ily. The  article  of  commerce  is  the  fibrous  skeleton  which  has 
been  divested  of  all  enveloping  perishable  matter.  Sponges 
derive  their  value  from  their  elasticity,  the  compressibility  of 
their  fibrous  framework,  and  capacity  for  absorbing  fluids.  The 
finest  grades  are  found  at  the  greatest  depths. 

Sponges  are  found  on  the  entire  north  coast  of 
Production  by  Africa  though  the  Egyptian  output  is  compar- 
Countries.  atively  slight.  The  Bay  of  Bomba  produces 

a  sponge  known  as  the  Benghazi  sponge, 
which  sells  at  a  higher  price  than  other  African  grades,  but  it 
is  slightly  darker  in  color  than  the  sponges  of  the  beds  on  the 
European  shores,  and  considered  inferior.  The  most  common 
types  found  on  the  Tripoli  coast  are  zimoccas  and  honeycombs. 


62  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


The  sponge  industry  plays  an  important  part  in  the  com- 
merce of  Tripoli.  From  the  central  port  of  Benghazi  one-half 
of  the  sponge  exports  go  to  Greece,  the  remaining  half  to 
Tunis,  Italy,  France,  Great  Britain  and  America.  The  Gulf  of 
Gransiste  yields  sponges  to  the  value  of  $150,000  per  year. 
During  1915  there  were  100  boats  engaged  in  this  industry. 
The  Italian  flag  flew  from  the  masthead  of  63  ships ;  the  Greek 
flag  from  36  ships;  Turkish,  1.  Nine  hundred  and  fifty-eight 
men  were  engaged,  almost  wholly  Greek.  During  1915,  123,- 
750  pounds  of  sponges  were  gathered.  The  price  paid  was 
$2.10  to  $2.80  per  pound  for  the  highest  grade;  the  poorest 
quality  bringing  30  cents  to  60  cents  per  pound.  Sponges  ex- 
ported in  1902  amounted  to  80,000  pounds,  valued  at  $120,- 
000.  The  production  of  1910  was  valued  at  $90,000.  In  1908 
bath  sponges  sold  at  $6.20  per  pound  and  cup  sponges  as  high 
as  $13.65  per  pound. 

Tunis  sponges  are  inferior  to  those  of  the  neighboring 
coast  of  Tripoli,  the  average  price  being  from  two  to  twenty 
per  cent,  less  for  corresponding  kinds.  The  natives  sell  their 
catches  in  the  uncleaned  condition  in  which  they  take  them 
from  the  rocks.  In  1904  the  output  of  sponges  for  Tunis  was 
234,000  pounds  valued  at  $434,900.  In  1915  Tunis  exported 
287,951  pounds  of  sponges,  valued  at  $654,435. 

Algerian  coasts  yield  only  small  quantities  and  have  not 
yet  revealed  beds  rich  enough  to  warrant  regular  fisheries,  al- 
though the  elephant-ear  has  been  found  at  Bona,  and  at  other 
points  a  toilet  sponge  almost  equal  to  those  of  the  Adriatic. 

The  Morocco  coast  has  been  explored  by  Spaniards,  who 
have  found  beds  capable  of  rich  commercial  development. 

The  world  demand  for  this  serviceable  commodity 
Outlook,  is  increasing.  Industry  is  demanding  a  larger  sup- 
ply of  sponges.  The  drain  of  centuries  on  the 
^Egean  and  Adriatic  seas  has  led  to  extensive  explorations  of 
other  sources  of  supply.  Along  the  African  coasts  an  abund- 
ant reserve  supply  is  found  in  the  Red  Sea  and  off  the  coast  of 
Morocco,  but  inferior  in  grade  to  the  Greek  sponge  of  the 
Mediterranean.  Deep  water  sponges  are  far  from  exhaustion. 
Production  of  sponges  by  artificial  culture  is  being  tried.  Meas- 
ures of  conservation  have  been  enacted  by  French  and  Italian 
governments  to  avoid  exhaustion  of  this  industry,  by  limiting 
the  period  when  sponges  may  be  gathered. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  63 


CORAL  AND  SHELLS 

Coral  (Corallium  nobile)  is  a  growth  of  peculiar  beauty 
found  in  the  sea,  composed  of  the  calcareous  skeletons  of  vari- 
ous protozoa.  The  structures  built  up  by  these  minute  creat- 
ures take  forms  like  naked  trees  or  shrubs,  spread  fans,  flow- 
ers, mushrooms,  cups,  according  to  the  different  laws  govern-r 
ing  germination  of  the  polypi  of  different  species. 

The  chief  corals  of  commerce  are  the  delicate  species 
suitable  for  jewelry  and  ornamental  objects,  and  known  as 
red,  blood-red,  rose,  angel's  skin,  gray,  dead,  pique.  The 
most  popular  of  these  is  the  red  coral  (Corallium  rubrum),  a 
twig-like  species  that  grows  only  about  a  foot  in  height  and 
has  a  stem  of  delicate  proportions. 

Coral  is  obtained  along  the  coasts  of  Japan, 
When  and  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  in  various  parts  of 

Where  Found,  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  in  the  Mediterranean 

region,  especially  along  the  northwestern 
coast  of  Africa,  from  Tripoli  to  Rio  de  Oro  and  on  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands,  where  it  is  abundantly  gathered.  The  most 
common  coral  is  a  large  white  species  which,  by  its  beauty 
and  variety  of  form,  makes  fine  specimens  for  museums,  but 
has  low  commercial  value.  In  the  warm  waters  around  Mada- 
gascar and  Mozambique  immense  branching-trees  of  white 
coral  are  obtained.  The  red  and  pink  coral  are  most  import- 
ant in  trade,  but  the  black  coral,  found  near  Japan,  is  more 
valuable  on  account  of  its  rarity.  Both  the  red  and  black  coral 
are  hard  and  susceptible  to  high  polish. 

Diving  for  coral  is  not  so  generally  common  as  diving 
for  sponges  and  pearls.  Nets  are  often  lowered  into  the  beds 
by  skillful  coral  fishermen,  who  are  able  to  break  off  the 
branches  without  injury.  Coral  is  bought  by  the  weight.  Large 
beads  have  sold  at  $25  per  pound,  and  extra  large  and  fine 
specimens  have  brought  almost  fabulous  prices. 

The  red  corals  are  the  most  popular  for  jewelry 
Uses  and  settings,  because  of  their  hardness  and  gloss. 

By-Products.  Pink  coral  has  a  softer,  more  delicate  appear- 
ance when  finished  than  red ;  it  is  also  used  for 
jewelry  and  is  cut  into  globular  beads  for  necklaces,  much  in 
vogue.  Buttons  made  from  coral  are  mostly  from  the  white 
varieties.  Buckles,  brooches,  bracelets  and  other  personal 


64  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


ornaments  are  exquisitely  carved  and  are  very  costly.  The 
Chinese  and  Hindus,  for  a  thousand  years,  have  been  the  most 
skilled  artisans  in  carving  coral  ornaments. 

Imitation  coral,  made  of  artificial  compositions,  is  so  clev- 
erly produced  as  to  require  the  minutest  inspection  to  detect 
the  substitute. 

Commerce  in  African  coral  is  localized  in  a  few 
Markets,  markets  in  Italy,  the  principal  ones  being  Naples, 
Genoa,  Leghorn  and  Sciacca  in  Sicily;  a  portion 
also  goes  to  Marseilles.  Red  and  pink  coral  is  exported  from 
the  northeastern  coast  of  Africa  to  India.  In  1917  coral  beads 
and  ornaments  were  exported  from  Morocco  to  the  United 
States,  to  the  value  of  $1,961. 

The  coral  trade  of  the  world  was  greatest  in  the 
Outlook.  18th  and  19th  centuries.  Demand  has  appreciably 

decreased  in  recent  years.  While  coral  is  still  ob- 
tained and  exported  in  considerable  quantities,  the  showy  gew- 
gaws into  which  it  is  converted  are  now  mostly  treasured  by 
the  Hindus  and  the  native  tribes  of  inland  Africa.  On  parts  of 
the  African  coast  there  was  such  danger  of  annihilation  of 
coral  beds  that  laws  for  protecting  the  precious  product  were 
enacted.  Algeria  divided  her  coast  into  three  sections  in  order 
to  preserve  the  beautiful  pink  coral  formerly  found  there  in 
large  quantities.  Each  division  is  worked  five  years  and  then 
allowed  to  recuperate  for  ten  years.  So  many  artificial  sub- 
stitutes are  made  there  seems  little  likelihood  of  any  great  ex- 
pansion in  this  industry.  Its  popularity  depends  on  the  un- 
certain vagaries  of  fashion.  But  the  finest  grade  brings  a  high 
price  today. 

The  plates  or  scales  of  the  hawksbill  turtle  consti- 
Tortoise  tute  the  semi-transparent,  mottled  substance  called 
Shell,  tortoise-shell.  Tortoise  shell  is  also  obtained  from 

both  the  plastron  and  the  carapace  of  other  sea- 
turtles  (Thalassites).  The  most  valued  variety  is  chelone  im- 
bacrita.  Another  species,  chelone  midas,  sometimes  measures 
six  feet  across.  This  is  called  tortue  vert,  because  of  the  green 
reflections  on  the  polished  shell.  Tortoises  abound  particularly 
around  the  Antilles.  They  are  found  intermittently  in  large 
numbers  off  the  coast  of  Senegal.  The  Mediterranean  tortoise 
is  used  for  food  and  for  oil,  as  well  as  for  ornamental  purposes. 
Aldabra,  off  the  East  Coast  of  Africa,  is  the  home  of  large 
herds  of  giant  tortoises,  the  shells  of  which  constitute  an  im- 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  65 


portant  product  of  commerce.  The  hawksbill  turtle  is  ex- 
ported from  the  shores  of  Madagascar  and  smaller  islands  of 
the  Indian  ocean,  both  for  the  shell,  and  the  flesh  and  eggs  for 
food,  as  well  as  the  thick  blood  which  is  relished  by  many  of 
the  inhabitants. 

The  commercial  varieties  of  tortoise  shell  are:  colored 
shells,  white  shells  and  onglong.  The  French  market  absorbs 
annually  $200,000  worth  of  shells,  but  London  is  the  greatest 
market. 

Madagascar  in  1905  exported  tortoise  shell  to  France  to 
the  value  of  $25,000.  In  1917  the  tortoise  shell  export  from 
this  island  was  2,100  pounds.  The  average  price  of  tortoise 
shell  at  Madagascar  in  1896-1897  was  $2.50  per  pound.  Most 
of  the  product  was  sent  to  India. 

The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  used  tortoise  shell  for 
Uses,  decorating  doors,  pillars  and  inner  furnishings  of  their 

houses.  When  the  city  of  Alexandria  was  taken  by 
Julius  Caesar  warehouses  were  so  full  of  tortoise  shell  that  he 
proposed  to  have  it  made  the  chief  ornament  of  his  triumph. 

Tortoise  shell  is  softened  by  means  of  boiling  water, 
which  renders  it  pliable  enough  to  be  moulded  into  any  form. 
The  lightness  and  softness  of  tortoise  shell  commends  it  for 
rims  of  spectacles,  adding  an  ogreish  look  to  the  modern  stud- 
ent. The  shell  is  also  employed  in  making  veneer  for  boxes 
and  frames,  inlay  for  fancy  furniture,  and  it  is  moulded  or 
cut  into  snuff-boxes,  knife-handles,  combs  and  other  toilet 
articles. 

An  imitation  of  tortoise  shell  is  made  by  staining  trans- 
lucent horn,  and  the  rise  of  the  celluloid  industry  is  producing 
substitutes  which  decreases  the  demand  for  the  natural  article 
except  among  the  wealthy  who  pay  high  for  the  best. 

Tortoise  shells,  like  coral  and  elephants'  tusks,  are  of  slow 
growth  and  limited  supply. 

The  cowrie  shells,  of  a  pearl-like  appearance 
Cowrie  Shells,  and  about  the  size  of  lima  beans,  are  found 

along  the  East  Coast  of  Africa,  particularly  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Zanzibar.  They  were  once  extensively 
used  as  a  medium  of  exchange  for  small  values,  with  many 
African  tribes,  and  are  yet  circulated  in  certain  localities.  Five 
dollars'  worth  would  make  a  bushel. 


66  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


A  minor  product  of  Africa  is  snails  (Helicidae).  The 
Snails,  supply  of  this  delicacy  varies  considerably  with  the 
seasons.  In  Ashanti  snail  shells  were  fifth  among 
exports  for  1916.  The  Warn  product  is  much  sought  after  and 
obtains  the  highest  price.  In  Coomassie  a  stick  of  100  Warn 
snails  sells  at  an  average  of  two  shillings. 

The  tropical  species  (Helix  pomatia)  is  very  large,  some- 
times measuring  more  than  two  inches  in  diameter.  These 
snails  are  globular,  brownish  white  with  large  rounded  aper- 
ture, having  a  thick  reflected  margin.  Many  snails  are  gath- 
ered in  the  French  colonies  of  Africa  and  exported  both  for 
food  and  for  the  shells  which  are  valued  for  buttons  and  orna- 
mental purposes  in  museums. 

Although  still  eaten  by  bon  viveurs  as  a  garnish  for  spin- 
ach, chiefly  among  the  French  who  display  them  in  the  mar- 
kets, the  snail  is  not  valued  as  in  former  times.  Romans,  in 
the  days  of  Lucullus,  counted  snails  among  their  toothsome 
delicacies  and  kept  them  in  moist  pens  where  they  were  fat- 
tened with  bran  and  sodden  lees  of  wine.  Snails  were  also  for- 
merly used  as  cosmetic,  to  preserve  the  soft  and  delicate  con- 
dition of  the  skin.  As  both  cosmetic  and  food  the  cherished 
portion  seems  to  have  been  the  slime. 

The  beautiful  mother-of-pearl  which  lines  the 
Mother  of  shells  of  a  great  number  of  mollusks,  and  the 
Pearl.  loose,  globular  brilliant  particles  known  as  pearls, 

belong  to  the  Lamellibranches  Gasteropodes  and 
Lephalopodes  families.  Mollusks  are  univalve,  bivalve,  or  mul- 
tivalve.  Oysters,  which  furnish  the  greatest  quantity  of  pearl, 
are  bivalve,  and  belong  to  the  genus  Ostrea. 

The  pearl  lining  of  shells,  and  the  more  prized  jewels 
known  as  "true  pearls,"  are  formed  by  calcareous  matter  se- 
creted by  mollusks,  evidently  for  the  purpose  of  making  for 
themselves  smooth  and  comfortable  beds  in  which  to  lie. 

The  shells  containing  this  rich  interior  (melagrina  mar- 
garitifera)  abound  in  the  tropical  seas,  and  form  one  of  the 
products  of  commerce  esteemed  for  beauty  alone.  Commerce 
distinguishes  several  species  of  mother-of-pearl :  the  Blanche 
Argentee,  extremely  clear;  the  batarde  blanche,  less  clear, 
with  green  and  violet  cast;  the  haliotide  irridescent;  and  the 
burgandine,  having  green  reflections.  The  irridescent  hues  of 
certain  species  of  mother-of-pearl  are  caused  by  the  structure 
of  the  material,  which  is  formed  in  very  fine  ridges  or  furrows. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF   AFRICA  67 


These  imperceptible  wrinkles  reflect  the  light  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  produce  a  pleasing  effect  to  the  eye. 

The  most  valuable  mother-of-pearl  is  found  in  the  sea; 
those  found  in  streams  are  of  less  value.  The  variety  most 
sought  is  the  Ear  of  the  Sea  (Heliotis  Gigantea)  found  in 
greatest  quantities  near  Japan  and  Korea.  The  flesh  con- 
tained in  these  shells  is  dried  for  edible  use.  The  pinna  is 
found  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  trochus  in  the  Indian 
Ocean.  The  most  profitable  regions  for  the  mother-of-pearl 
are  the  coasts  of  Ceylon,  Malay  Islands,  the  Far  East,  eastern 
Africa  and  California.  The  African  industry  is  carried  on  along 
the  East  Coast  and  on  the  islands  of  Pemba  and  Socotra,  but 
more  particularly  in  the  Red  Sea,  where  the  shells  are  abund- 
ant. Madagascar  and  the  Gulf  of  Gabes  constitute  a  consider- 
able market  even  though  these  regions  have  no  organized  fish- 
eries. But  the  African  output  is  almost  negligble  compared 
with  other  regions  around  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Raw  mother-of-pearl  was  exported  from  French 
Export         Somaliland  in  1914  to  the  value  of  $5,100.   Eritrea, 
Figures,     the  Italian  colony  on  the  Red  Sea,  carries  on  pearl 
fishing  to  the  annual  value  of  $50,000,  and  mother- 
of-pearl,  to  the  value  of  $160,000. 

Most  of  the  output  of  mother-of-pearl  is  sent  to  France 
for  the  manufacture  of  jewelry,  fancy  inlaid  work  and  papier- 
mache,  toilet  articles,  knife-handles  and  other  ornamental  pur- 
poses, but  especially  for  buttons,  which  are  made  from  the 
wkite  or  cream  varieties.  Another  shell  found  in  tropical 
waters  that  furnishes  mother-of-pearl  is  the  nautilus,  usually 
white,  cream  or  faint  gray. 

The  same  substance  that  makes  mother-of-pearl  is 
Pearls,  concentrated  in  jewel  form  in  the  particles  which  are 
called  pearls.  These  particles,  known  as  true  pearls, 
are  formed  by  irritating  foreign  substances  thrust  accidentally 
or  otherwise  into  the  shells.  The  fragments  are  enveloped  by  a 
secretion  from  the  animal  and  formed  into  things  of  beauty. 

As  pearl  beds  are  often  far  from  the  shore,  pearl- 
How  diving  is  a  hazardous  and  skillful  trade  pursued 
Obtained,  only  in  calm  weather.  Pearl-divers,  like  sponge- 
divers,  are  trained  young.  The  fishers  go  out  in 
boats  with  two  sets  of  divers,  besides  the  crew.  When  reach- 
ing the  beds,  half  the  divers,  after  stopping  their  nostrils  and 
ears,  tying  a  weight  to  one  foot  to  assist  in  sinking,  and  fasten- 


68  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


ing  a  net  to  waist  and  neck,  make  the  plunge.  For  two  or 
three  minutes  the  diver  stays  under  water,  holding  his  breath, 
filling  as  rapidly  as  possible  the  net  with  oysters.  Upon  jerk- 
ing the  rope  he  is  drawn  up  and  assisted  into  the  boat,  usually 
faint  and  exhausted.  When  the  first  group  have  been  again 
drawn  into  the  boat,  the  second  makes  its  descent,  to  go 
through  the  same  performance,  and  they  alternate  in  this  way 
through  the  day,  each  group  sometimes  diving  a  dozen  or  more 
times.  The  divers  frequently  descend  to  a  depth  of  70  feet  in 
their  search  for  shells. 

(Shells  are  ready  to  gather  when  they  are  about  six  or  sev- 
en years  old,  divers  being  careful  to  leave  young  shells  undis- 
turbed. When  the  oysters  are  taken  to  shore  they  are  piled  up 
and  left  to  putrefy,  as  the  shells  can  then  be  easily  opened. 
When  considered  ready,  the  lottery  of  opening  and  searching 
begins — lottery  because  sometimes  one  shell  will  give  up  a 
great  prize  or  even  many  valuable  pearls,  while  a  hundred 
others  might  be  opened  without  yielding  a  single  pearl. 

Pearls  are  gathered  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  Gulf 
Uses  and  of  California  and  the  Red  Sea,  around  the  So- 

Substitutes.  ciety  Islands  and  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Ceylon  is 

the  market  where  the  pearl  has  its  greatest 
value.  The  Grand  Mogul  possesses  the  largest  and  finest 
round  pearl  as  the  insignium  of  his  office.  Pearls  most  highly 
esteemed  are  the  round  ones,  and  compare  favorably  with 
precious  stones.  Small  pearls,  known  as  seed  pearls,  are  used 
for  jewelry  and  decorative  purposes.  Very  small  and  irregu- 
lar ones  are  ground  into  powder  for  sale. 

False  pearls  are  now  made  for  industrial  purposes  from 
broken  glass,  powder,  wax  and  fish  glue,  the  manufactured 
articles  being  excellent  imitations. 

The  pearl,  though  not  essential  to  human  existence, 
Outlook,  is  prized  by  discriminating  connoisseurs.  The  Mas- 
ter alluded  to  its  select  clientage  when  he  ex- 
claimed: "Cast  not  your  pearls  before  swine."  The  King  of 
Italy  makes  an  annual  birthday  present  to  his  wife  of  a  string 
of  pearls.  In  these  days  of  taxing  luxuries,  the  demand  for 
pearls  is  not  likely  soon  to  outrun  the  supply.  Although  the 
price  is  several  times  higher  than  before  the  war,  the  African 
supply  will  not  soon  run  out.  It  is  subject  to  the  fickleness  of 
Fashion. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  69 


The  cuttlefish  (Sepia  officinalis)  is  found  most 
Cuttlefish,  abundantly  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  forms 

one  of  Africa's  articles  of  trade.  This  fish  has  a 
peculiar  white  oval-shaped  bone  in  the  middle  of  its  body,  one 
surface  of  which  is  hard  while  the  opposite  side  consists  of  a 
spongy  substance,  which,  when  dried  and  pulverized,  is  made 
into  tooth-powder  and  used  as  an  ingredient  for  medicines. 
It  is  also  used  by  silversmiths  for  moulds  in  which  to  cast 
spoons,  rings,  and  other  articles  of  their  trade.  Burnt,  or  cal- 
cined, it  is  used  for  cleaning  and  polishing  silver  and  other 
hard  surfaces.  A  common  use  of  the  cuttle-bone  is  for  canaries 
and  other  caged  birds  as  a  sharpener  for  their  bills. 

Another  very  different  substance  obtained  from  this  ani- 
mal is  a  black  secretion  from  which  is  manufactured  India 
ink,  made  principally  in  India,  China  and  Japan,  where  it 
forms  the  common  writing  ink  of  those  countries.  A  dilution 
of  this  substance,  treated  with  caustic  potash  and  red,  is 
manufactured,  chiefly  by  the  Italians,  into  a  rich  brown  pig- 
ment known  in  the  markets  as  sepia.  This  black  substance  of 
the  cuttlefish  is  contained  in  a  bag  conected  with  the  siphon; 
when  the  animal  is  pursued  it  throws  out  the  inky  fluid  which 
clouds  the  water  around  it,  thus  enabling  it  to  escape. 

The  cuttlefish  was  considered  a  great  table  delicacy  by 
the  ancients  and  is  still  occasionally  used  for  food,  by  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Mediteranean  region. 

FISH 

Fishing  is  an  important  industry  of  many  African  coun- 
tries, especially  along  the  northwest  coast.  There  is  a  large 
export  to  the  nearby  Catholic  fish-eating  nations  of  Spain, 
Portugal,  Italy  and  France.  Fish  are  obtained  in  greatest 
numbers  from  Portuguese  Africa,  Tunis,  Morocco,  Natal,  East 
Africa,  Mozambique,  Union  of  South  Africa.  Whales  come 
from  the  neighborhood  of  Madagascar  and  the  southern  wat- 
ers of  the  Atlantic.  Salt  water  fisheries  are  divided  into  deep 
sea  and  coastal.  The  best  known  African  salt  water  fish  are 
tunny,  or  horse  mackerel  (Scomber) ,  a  large  coarse  fish  some- 
times nine  feet  long  and  1,000  pounds  in  weight;  sardines, 
very  small  fish  belonging  to  the  herring  family  (Clupaea) ;  and 
anchovy  (Clupaea  encrasiclus),  another  of  the  herring  family. 
These  small  fish,  on  account  of  the  vast  shoals  that  come  to  the 


70  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


shores  to  spawn  during  May,  June  and  July,  are  caught  prin- 
cipally with  nets,  by  the  hundreds  of  thousands,  off  the  north- 
west coasts. 

Much  of  the  food  fish  obtained  from  African  waters 
Quality,  is  coarse,  but  several  of  the  smaller  kinds  are  highly 

esteemed  for  the  quality  of  their  flavor,  and  even 
the  coarse  tunny  fish  has  gained  a  wide  popularity  for  its  food 
properties  and  the  oil  obtained  from  it. 

The  normal  tunny  catch  of  Tunis,  the  main  center  of  the 
trade,  averages  25,000  fish.  Tunny  roe,  salted  and  dried,  is 
worth  $3  per  pound.  Oil  of  the  tunny  fish  is  used  for  many 
purposes,  and  is  obtained  by  boiling  the  head  and  belly,  other 
parts  of  the  body  being  used  for  food. 

Sardines  are  caught  by  the  millions  and  packed  in  olive 
oil  in  tin  cans,  making  one  of  the  most  popular  foods  known. 
Anchovies  are  packed  chiefly  in  small  barrels  to  be  used  large- 
ly for  sauces. 

Where  fish  are  caught  and  packed  in  such  abundance  as 
on  the  north  African  coasts  there  is  necessarily  a  great  deal 
of  waste;  but  fish  have  been  found  to  be  an  excellent  fertilizer, 
especially  the  head  and  entrails,  and  what  was  once  waste  is 
now  utilized.  Where  there  is  superabundance,  as  with  her- 
ring, whole  fish  are  used  for  this  purpose.  Fish  guano  is  even 
better  for  fertilizing  purposes,  not  being  so  strong  as  the  oily 
bodies,  and  is  gathered  and  packed,  either  alone  or  mixed  with 
body  parts  for  the  use  of  agriculturists.  Fish  fertilizer  con- 
tains a  great  deal  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and 
lime.  Fish  guano  contains  the  same  properties  in  a  lessened 
degree,  which  makes  it  better  for  soils  and  vegetation. 

Isinglass  is  a  very  pure  gelatine,  manufactured  from  the 
swimming  bladders  of  various  kinds  of  fish  and  used  in  con- 
fectionery; also  for  clarifying  wine  and  beer. 

Inland  fishing  is  valuable  for  home  re- 
Fresh  Water  Fish,  quirements  and  in  places  is  plentiful 

enough  for  a  small  export.  The  lakes  and 
rivers  are  frequently  transformed  by  droughts  into  rocky  roads 
for  highways.  In  the  interior  of  the  continent  the  lakes  teem 
with  fish,  as  do  such  rivers  as  flow  throughout  the  year,  but 
many  rivers  contain  water  during  the  rainy  season  only.  Often 
these  streams  become  dry  even  a  few  hours  after  the  rains 
have  ceased,  which  tends  to  produce  an  amphibious  fish. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  71 


The  modes  of  fishing  in  Africa  are  .vari- 
How  Obtained,  ous — ranging  from  the  most  primitive 
methods  of  naked  tribes  to  the  best  meth- 
ods of  civilized  man.  The  natives,  who  formerly  lived  largely 
on  fish,  catch  them  with  wires  or  traps,  spear  them  from 
canoes  and  from  banks,  and  also  use  hook  and  line.  In  British 
East  Africa  the  natives  have  pot-shaped  baskets  about  three 
feet  in  diameter.  These  are  sunk  into  the  shallow  water  of 
swamps  and  examined  next  morning  when  any  fish  contained 
in  them  are  speared.  The  native  fish-spear  is  an  awl-like, 
polished  prong  about  a  foot  in  length,  fixed  in  a  shaft  10  or 
12  feet  long.  The  fish  most  often  caught  in  this  way  are 
various  kinds  of  catfish,  and  the  perch.  The  natives  also  use 
nets,  which  are  prohibited  in  some  places,  or  at  least  limited, 
because  of  the  great  quantities  of  fish  caught  in  them  and  wast- 
ed. This  protection  is  especially  for  fresh  water  fish,  as  many 
kinds  caught  from  the  sea  are  at  times  superabundant;  fish 
guano  and  parts  of  fish  bodies  for  fertilizer,  has  become  a  sep- 
arate industry  at  certain  seasons.  Fish  are  opened  and  dried 
in  the  sun,  by  which  process  they  become  the  dried  fish  of 
the  markets,  constituting  an  important  trade  in  all  the  Soudan 
and  inland  desert  markets. 

The  principal  genus  of  fresh  water  fish  is  the  carp 
(CyprinicUe),  related  to  the  genus  Barbus,  a  sluggish  kind  of 
fish  having  barbules  hanging  from  the  jaws.  Thirty-six  speci- 
mens of  these  fish  have  been  classified  from  various  rivers  of 
South  Africa  and  Zambezi. 

The  cyprinodon  dispar,  a  small  inland  fish  found  in  still 
water,  has  been  discovered  to  be  of  inestimable  use  in  pre- 
venting malaria  by  eating  the  larvae  of  disease-breeding  mos- 
quitoes. Scientists  have  introduced  these  fish  into  many  waters 
where  they  have  proved  their  value  in  reducing  disease.  The 
Orphiocephalus  obscurus  is  a  large  fish  that  also  devours  mos- 
quito eggs. 

Another  genus  of  importance  is  the  scaleless  catfish  fam- 
ily (Siluridae),  containing  the  Clarias  gariepensis,  which  at- 
tains large  size,  often  growing  to  the  length  of  three  feet.  This 
fish  is  one  of  the  curious  survivors  of  drouth  conditions.  Adapt- 
ation to  circumstances  has  taught  it  to  hibernate  during  the 
dry  season  in  mud-holes. 

One  of  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  spirobranchus 
capensis  is  a  remarkable  breathing  organ  and  a  cavity  in 


72  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


which  it  can  retain  water,  which  enables  it  to  live  for  a  consid- 
erable time  in  the  open  air  or  enclosed  in  dry  mud,  another 
provision  of  nature  for  preservation  of  life  during  the  dry 
season. 

Scarcity  of  fresh  water  fish  in  the  interior  of  Africa  in 
certain  seasons  is  due  not  only  to  drying  up  of  the  streams 
after  rains,  but  often  to  wasteful  customs  of  natives.  Certain 
tribes  have  a  practice  of  placing  dams  across  a  stream  and 
stretching  before  them  nets  which  catch  the  fish  as  they  pour 
over  the  fall  of  water.  As  these  dams  are  fixed  across  the 
streams  about  every  two  miles,  few  fish  of  a  stream  have  a 
chance  to  survive. 

A  small  fish  of  the  genus  Galaxias,  distantly  related  to 
the  salmon,  is  found  in  South  Africa.  This  fish  is  an  inhabitant 
of  fresh  water  of  all  countries  of  the  Southern  hemisphere,  an 
argument  with  scientists  that  lands  of  the  southern  con- 
tinents were  once  joined  together. 

In  Ethiopian  Africa  there  are  fourteen  families  of  fresh 
water  fish,  all  more  or  less  used  by  the  inhabitants,  but  only 
the  Mormyridae  and  Gymnarchidae,  somewhat  allied  to  the 
North  American  pikes,  are  peculiar  to  the  region. 

The  fishing  industry  is  well  developed  in  the  large  rivers 
of  Africa,  being  a  special  industry  of  Senegal  and  Niger  rivers, 
where  each  group  of  natives  has  its  own  fixed  fishing  region. 

The  Lower  Dahomey  lagoons  and  lakes  teem  with  fish, 
caught  in  great  quantities  by  the  natives  for  their  own  use 
and  to  carry  to  local  markets. 

The  plattekop,  or  catfish,  is  found  in  great  numbers  in 
deep  pools  of  the  Orange  and  Vaal  rivers. 

While  Africa  does  not  rank  with  the  Newfound- 
Exports  by     land  Banks,  the  North  Sea,  or  coasts  of  Japan,  as 
Countries.      a  fishing  region,  there  is  a  large  production  for 
local  consumption  and  a  considerable  export. 

In  1916,  Algeria  exported  fresh,  dried,  canned  fish,  and 
fertilizer  from  by-products,  to  the  amount  of  $1,121,137. 

Tunis  exported  1,340,669  kg.  salt  fish,  valued  at  2,729,- 
982  fr.  in  1916. 

In  1917,  Tunis  exported  591,871  kilos  of  fish,  amounting 
to  $1,146,480. 

The  Canary  Islanders  have  fished  at  Arguin  beach  from 
early  times.  A  40-ton  schooner  catches  and  prepares  3,000 
kilograms  of  fish  daily.  The  varieties  are  "mugres,"  a  species 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  73 


of  cod,  soles,  sea-crayfish,  red  mullets,  gurnards,  sardines. 
Dried  and  salt  fish  are  exported  to  France. 

In  1915,  Dahomey  exported  dried  fish  to  the  amount  of 
$45,531,  and  shrimp  to  the  amount  of  $27,040. 

The  Gold  Coast  has  5,000  canoes  engaged  in  fisheries. 
The  fishermen  never  go  out  on  Tuesday,  as  that  day  is  held 
sacred  to  the  fetish  of  the  sea.  These  fisheries  are  insufficient 
to  supply  the  local  demand. 

Sailors  from  Portugal  a  long  time  ago  established  them- 
selves at  Angola,  where  their  hard  labor  has  been  rewarded 
by  the  modern  importance  of  the  place  as  a  fishery. 

In  1914,  Portuguese  East  Africa,  by  way  of  the  port  of 
Lorenco  Marques,  exported  dried  fish  to  the  amount  of  $2,006, 
and  whale  oil  to  the  amount  of  $28,908,  and  whale  by-prod- 
ucts for  fertilizer,  $2,144;  through  Inhambane,  dried  fish  to 
the  amount  of  $6,168,  and  whale  by-products  for  fertilizer  to 
the  amount  of  $31,836.  In  1918  Mozambique  exported  whale 
oil  amounting  to  $218,000,  besides  whale  by-products  for  fer- 
tilizing. 

In  British  East  Africa  fishing  comes  next  to  agriculture 
as  an  industry.  This  country  has  both  salt  and  fresh  water  fish, 
much  of  which  is  used  for  home  consumption,  but  a  consider- 
able quantity  is  exported  as  well.  Much  fish  comes  from  the 
big  lakes  of  that  country  and  from  the  rivers,  the  most  produc- 
tive of  these  streams  being  the  Tana.  The  native  men  and 
women  of  this  country  live  so  much  in  the  water  that  they 
have  been  called  amphibious,  and  of  the  little  river  that  yields 
so  much  to  them  they  say,  "The  Tana  is  our  brother." 

In  1917,  Union  South  Africa  exported  fish  amounting  to 
£214,702,  and  212,659  gallons  whale  oil,  amounting  to  $79,600. 

In  1917,  Madagascar  exported  67,309  kilograms  of  fish. 
A  fishery  very  different  from  any  other  is  that  of 
Whaling,  procuring  those  largest  of  earth's  creatures,  whales 
(Cetacea).  These  ocean  mammals  are  warm-blood- 
ed and  air-breathing,  but  because  of  their  fish-like  form  and 
habitation  in  water  they  are  classed  with  fishes  and  the  in- 
dustry of  catching  them  is  known  as  whale-fishing,  though 
they  might  appropriately  go  under  Big  Game  hunting.  The 
largest  species,  as  well  as  the  largest  of  existing  animals,  is 
the  group  known  as  the  whalebone  whale.  These  whales  live 
chiefly  in  frigid  waters  and  the  greatest  fisheries  are  at  Green- 


74  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


land  and  the  Falkland  Islands,  but  in  the  broad  southern 
oceans  they  go  as  far  north  as  the  southern  shores  of  Africa. 

While  the  whalebone  whale  furnishes  part  of  the  African 
whale  industry,  that  most  valuable  to  this  continent  is  the 
sperm-whale,  or  Cachelot  (Physeter  macrocephalus).  They 
are  taken  on  the  East  Coast.  The  bulls  are  larger  than  the 
cows  and  have  been  known  to  measure  80  or  84  feet. 

Sperm-whales  live  mostly  in  the  South  Pacific  and  the 
Indian  Ocean.  The  greatest  African  whale  fisheries  are  on 
the  Carrol  ground  between  St.  Helena  and  Africa ;  also  in  the 
straits  of  Madagascar  and  north  of  that  island. 

During  1911  17,500  whales  were  taken  in  the  southern 
hemisphere.  During  recent  years  a  thousand  whales  have  been 
annually  captured  by  fishermen  from  Cape  ports.  The  annual 
average  catch  of  whales  off  the  coast  of  Mozambique  is  one 
for  each  day  in  the  year.  From  this  latter  country  the  single 
large  item  of  export  to  the  United  States  during  1915  was 
made  up  of  whale  oil.  In  reciprocity  the  American  manu- 
facturers sent  a  very  increased  amount  of  agricultural  ma- 
chinery, automobiles  and  cotton  goods  to  this  distant  Portu- 
guese colony. 

Ambergris,  a  much  prized  substance  for  perfumery, 
secreted  in  the  intestines  of  whales  and  found  floating  in  Af- 
rican oceanic  waters  or  on  the  shore  where  it  has  been  cast, 
is  a  waxy  substance,  sometimes  white,  gray,  black,  or  varie- 
gated like  marble.  A  find  of  100  pounds  of  ambergris  often 
realizes  a  small  fortune. 

The  whale  furnishes  a  wealth  of  useful  productions.  To 
the  Esquimaux  it  is  a  friend  indeed,  furnishing  him  with  near- 
ly everything  needed  in  his  meager  life,  but  in  temperate  and 
tropic  climes  the  most  useful  products  from  the  whale  are 
oil,  whalebone  and  spermaceti.  Whalebone  is  used  for  stif- 
fening clothing,  for  canes,  whips,  brushes,  and,  split  very  fine, 
is  woven  into  silk  to  stiffen  it  and  make  it  rustle.  Spermaceti 
is  used  for  a  high  grade  of  candles,  for  waxing  cartridge  cov- 
ers, jars  in  which  preserved  fruits  are  contained,  and  by  phar- 
macists for  various  purposes.  The  teeth  of  the  sperm-whale 
are  of  an  ivory  whiteness  and  hardness,  and  are  often  used  as 
a  substitute  for  that  material.  Ambergris  is  used  in  scented 
pastiles,  candles,  balls,  gloves,  hair-powder,  pomades,  and 
other  things  in  which  a  strong  scent  is  desired,  and  it  is  the 
foundation  of  many  perfumes.  The  skin  of  the  whale  is  tan- 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  75 


ned  and  used  for  a  number  of  purposes ;  the  flesh  and  bones  are 
used  for  fertilizer,  so  that  little  or  none  of  the  whale  is  lost  to 
commerce.  Oil  of  the  whale  and  of  many  fishes  is  used  for 
making1  soap. 

Whale  fishing  off  the  African  coasts,  as  everywhere 
Outlook,  else,  has  seen  better  days.  Whales  have  been  ruth- 
lessly killed  for  many  generations  and,  not  being 
prolific  animals,  there  seems  to  be  a  near  possibility  of  their 
extinction.  Laws  are  now  in  force  for  their  protection.  Owing 
to  the  reduction  in  numbers  whale  materials  have  necessarily 
been  reduced,  substitutes  for  them  having  become  a  necessity 
in  certain  cases.  A  large  whale  has  been  known  to  yield  1% 
tons  of  whalebone,  and  oil  from  one  whalebone  whale  is  some- 
times obtained  to  the  value  of  $3,500  to  $7,000.  In  1911  oil 
fetched  $120  per  ton. 

There  is  an  increasing  demand  for  whale-meat  in  the 
restaurants  of  the  world  which  may  shorten  the  supply.  Few 
American  whalemen  visit  the  South  African  grounds  of  late 
years  owing  to  the  decreasing  fares. 

BIG  GAME 

Interest  in  Africa  for  many  years  has  centered  in  its  big 
game.  Sportsmen  from  every  part  of  the  world  have  visited 
this  continent  for  the  royal  pastime  of  lion  and  elephant  hunt- 
ing. As  a  natural  resource  big  game  has  bulked  large  in  Af- 
rica though  gradually  diminishing.  Every  section  of  Africa 
provides  some  sort  of  game  to  attract  the  hunter  but  the  East- 
ern regions,  including  Abyssinia,  Somaliland,  British  and  Ger- 
man East  Africa,  are  the  most  frequented  fields.  The  railroad 
from  Mombassa,  port  of  British  East  Africa,  is  the  chief  point 
of  entry  into  the  hinterland  whither  game  has  retreated  be- 
fore the  advance  of  encircling  civilization. 

The  principal  animals  sought  by  hunters  include  the 
pachyderms,  elephant  (Elephas  proboscidea  africanus) ,  rhin- 
oceros (Rhinoceros  bicornis) ,  hippopotamus  (Hippopotamus 
amhibius);  lion  (Felis  !eo) ,  leopard  (Felis  pardus),  hyena 
(hyaena  striats,  h.  brunnea,  h.  crocuta)  and  other  carnivora ; 
giraffe  (Camelopardalis  giraffa);  buffalo  (Bos  cafer) ;  zebra 
(Equus  zebra);  deer  (Cervidae);  antelope  (Damaliscadae) ; 
crocodile  (Crocodilus  niloticus)  and  other  reptila;  ostrich 
(Struthio  Camelus)  ;  giant  bustard  (Otis  kori) ;  marabou  (Let- 


76  RAW  PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


toptilus  Crumenifer) ;  egret  (Egretta  candidissima),  and  many 
other  birds. 

The  various  sections  afford  different  varieties  of  quarry. 

In  Rhodesia,  according  to  the  Oxford  Survey  of  1914: 

"The  advance  of  civilization  has  not  robbed  Rhodesia  of  a  distin- 
guished place  among  the  big-game-hunting  countries  of  the  world.  In 
Southern  Rhodesia  the  advent  of  an  energetic  farming  population  has 
driven  away  great  numbers  of  game  from  those  parts  of  the  country  which 
are  situated  at  high  altitudes,  or  in  the  neighborhood  of  towns  and  rail- 
ways, but  farther  afield,  and  in  the  native  district,  the  sportsman  may 
still  encounter  the  elephant,  hippopotamus,  rhinoceros,  buffalo,  zebra  and 
the  larger  varieties  of  antelope,  all  of  which  are  now  practically  extinct, 
except  where  carefully  preserved  in  the  southern  colonies.  The  lion  and 
leopard  still  prowl  around  the  cattle  and  sheep  folds  in  remoter  districts, 
and  occasionally  venture  within  close  range  of  civilization." 

In  Nyasaland,  according  to  the  same  authority: 

"Animal  life  in  Nyasaland  is  abundant,  although  big  game  is  dis- 
appearing from  the  neighborhood  of  civilization.  Certain  species  which 
are  common  to  South  and  British  East  Africa  are  absent  from  Nyasa- 
land, e.  g.  the  ard  wolf,  caracal  lynx,  long-eared  foxes,  mountain  asses, 
oryx,  antelopes,  the  gazelles,  jerboas,  and  bear,  secretary  vulture,  and 
ostrich.  Nyasaland  also  differs  from  West  Africa  in  not  possessing  any 
form  of  anthropoid  ape,  several  monkeys,  some  of  the  smaller  antelopes, 
and  the  Dorcatherium.  The  points  of  resemblance  with  West  Africa  are 
the  presence  of  a  peculiar  civet  cat,  one  or  more  genera  of  bats,  a  colo- 
bus  monkey,  and  among  birds  the  black  and  white  vulturine  fishing  eagle. 
Nyasaland  offers  a  good  field  to  the  sportsman  for  elephant,  buffalo,  rhin- 
oceros, zebra,  hippopotamus,  antelope,  (greater  kudu,  sable,  eland,  nyla, 
etc.),  bush  pig,  wart-hog,  etc.  Smaller  animals  of  the  order  Rodentia  are 
abundant  also  bats,  shrews,  and  in  a  few  districts  also  the  scaly  ant-eater. 

"Of  the  carnivora,  the  lion,  leopard,  several  species  of  cat,  the  chee- 
tah, hyena,  genet,  mongoose,  jackal,  hunting  dog,  weasel,  badger,  otter, 
are  all  fairly  common." 

In  Somaliland,  according  to  the  Oxford  Survey : 

"The  wild  fauna  is  naturally  more  numerous,  and  also  more  varied, 
away  from  the  coast  and  beyond  the  British  southern  frontier;  but  even 
in  the  maritime  tracts  of  Guban  the  pasture  provides  food  for  a  large  wild 
ass  and  for  several  species  of  antelope,  including  the  little  dik-diks  (Mado- 
qua  phillipsi  and  swayneium,  quentheri  is  confined  to  the  Haud),  oryx  (O. 
beisa),  and  Soemmering's  gazelle,  both  extending  throughout  the  coun- 
try, as  well  as  the  lowland  gazelle  (G.  pelzelni)  replaced  by  Speke's  ga- 
zelle beyond  the  maritime  hills,  and,  about  the  rocky  hills,  the  beira 
(Dorcatragus  melanotis).  Hares  and  several  species  of  sand-grouse  (Pter- 
ocles),  bustard,  and  francolins,  with  occasional  ostriches,  are  also  found 
over  the  maritime  tracts.  Farther  into  the  highland  occur  the  harte 
beeste  (Bubalis  swaynei),  the  giraffe-like  gerenuk  or  Waller's  gazelle 
(Lithocranius  walleri)  the  nimble  klipspringer  (Oreotragus  saltator), 
greater  and  lesser  kudu  (Strepsiaeros),  together  with  wart-hogs  every- 
where near  water,  and  troops  of  baboons  along  the  mountains. 

"Preying  on  these  creatures  and  on  the  flocks  and  herds  of  the 
Somalis  a  varied  collection  of  carnivora  exists  among  which  the  lion,  leop- 
ard, lynx,  serval  and  civet  cats,  striped  hyenas,  jackals  and  foxes  should 
be  mentioned. 

"The  elephant  seerns  to  be  suffering  gradual  extinction  or  expulsion  to 
the  less  accessible  lands." 

Of  Sierre  Leone,  the  Oxford  Survey  says : 

"Sierre  Leone  is  hardly  suited  to  big  game  hunting  in  the  ordinary 
acceptation  of  the  term,  the  larger  animals  being  comparatively  scarce. 
A  game  license  costing  £25  is  required.  Numbers  of  animals  inhabit  the 
forests  and  bush,  but  few  are  seen;  they  seem  to  shun  the  invader.  The 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  77 


dense  mangroves  are  the  home  of  countless  grey  monkeys.  There  are  neith- 
er lions  nor  tigers,  but  the  following  are  to  be  found :  elephants,  hippopot- 
ami, leopards,  and  tiger  cats,  fossa,*  bush  cows,  wild  boars,  chimpanzees, 
monkeys  of  different  kinds,  armadillos,  porcupines,  etc.  Crocodiles  of 
great  size  infest  the  rivers.  Pythons  and  snakes  of  many  varieties,  poison- 
ous and  non-poisonous  are  found." 

The  fauna  of  Angola  includes:  Lion,  leopard,  cheetah, 
elephant,  giraffe,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  buffalo,  zebra, 
koodoo,  wild  pig,  ostrich,  crocodile  and  many  kinds  of  an- 
telope. "Jungle  products,"  obtained  chiefly  through  natives, 
are  among  the  most  important  exports  of  Angola. 

In  the  Dongola  desert  region  is  found  the  addax,  rarest  of 
Soudan  antelopes. 

The  elephant,  rhinoceros,  and  hippopotamus  are  still  nu- 
merous in  parts  of  Abyssinia.  Lions  of  moderate  size  are 
found  in  the  wooded  mountains  and  of  a  very  much  larger 
size  in  the  warm  plains  where  enormous  leopards  abound. 
The  guepard,  lynx,  hyena,  wolf,  wild  dog  and  jackal  may  be 
encountered  very  generally.  Droves  of  buffalo,  almost  de- 
stroyed by  the  bovine  pest  in  1897,  are  now  multiplying  rapid- 
ly. In  the  western  part  giraffes  are  occasionally  seen.  The 
ostrich  is  common.  The  zebra  is  met  with  on  the  plains  and 
the  wild  ass  in  the  rocky  mountains  to  the  north.  Antelopes 
and  gazelles  appear  everywhere.  Many  species  of  the  chamois 
are  also  to  be  found,  among  which  is  the  diminutive  dik-dik, 
the  weight  of  which  rarely  exceeds  10  pounds.  Other  animals 
are  the  boar,  the  wild  dog,  badger,  marten,  hedgehog,  gnu. 

The  big  game  of  Africa  have  products  of  in- 
Uses  and  trinsic  value  which  are  greatly  enhanced  by 

By-Products,  the  pride  of  the  mighty  hunter  returning  with 
his  trophies  from  the  chase.  The  most  hand- 
some and  showy  skins  for  ornamental  use  are  the  leopard,  gir- 
affe, zebra,  okapi.  The  skins  of  African  animals  are  prepared 
for  rugs  for  the  homes  of  wealthy  adventurers  and  the  most 
sumptuous  hotels  throughout  the  world.  The  most  majestic 
trophies  of  the  chase  are  the  heads  of  elephants,  rhinoceri, 
lions,  buffaloes,  and  may  be  seen  protruding  from  the  upper 
walls  of  the  clubs  and  halls  of  men  in  every  capital  of  Christen- 
dom. The  skulls  and  skeletons  are  stock  exhibits  in  every  great 
museum.  Africa  has  been  more  widely  advertised  through  its 
big  game  than  any  other  resource,  and  between  the  circus 
menagerie  and  the  pictorial  geography  young  America  of  the 
past  generation  has  fondly  pictured  the  Dark  Continent  as 

* (Cryptoprocta  ferox),  a  fine  cat,  peculiar  to  Madagascar. 


78  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


one  vast  zoological  garden.  Most  of  the  furs  of  Africa  are  too 
costly  to  be  worn  commonly,  but  American  shop  girls  wear 
monkey  skins  when  fashion  dictates. 

Such  is  the  recognized  value  of  these  highly  prized  Af- 
rican skins  that  the  pelts  of  the  plebian  cat  and  dog  are  re- 
christened  under  the  grander  names  of  lion  or  leopard,  after 
ingenious  artificial  treatment  and  imitation  skins  are  fabricat- 
ed from  cheap  vegetable  fibers  which  resemble  animal  hairs. 

The  camel  is  the  only  domestic  animal  which  has  no  wild 
prototype  in  existence.  The  wild  horse,  ox,  sheep,  goat,  boar, 
cat,  are  yet  found  in  different  corners  of  the  earth,  but  the 
camel  is  completely  subjugated  by  man.  Our  domestic  cat 
(Felix  domestica)  is  descended  from  the  Egyptian  cat  (Felix 
caliata)  which  was  one  of  the  sacred  animals. 

The  pursuit  of  seals  on  the  islands  along  the  southern 
coast  of  Africa  is  diminishing  but  not  wholly  given  up.  Black 
seals  visit  these  islands  during  November  when  the  pups  are 
born  and  a  few  months  later  put  out  to  sea  again.  When  the 
yearlings  return  an  overwhelming  proportion  are  found  to  be 
males,  which  are  captured  for  the  English  market.  In  1917 
the  black  seal  skins  sold  at  $7.50  apiece  in  London,  and  the 
total  sales  amounted  to  $6,000. 

The  African  crocodile  (Crocodilus  niloticus)  belongs  to 
the  man-eating  species,  and  has  destroyed  as  many  human  be- 
ings as  any  other  wild  animal  in  the  dark  continent.  The 
crocodile,  while  not  so  numerous  as  formerly,  yet  abounds 
in  the  Congo  and  other  tropical  African  rivers,  and  the  meat 
from  young  animals  is  said  to  be  palatable  to  natives.  Former- 
ly it  was  held  sacred  by  the  Egyptians,  and  many  specimens 
were  preserved  as  mummies. 

Africa  is  the  home  of  the  anthropoid  ape  (  Anthropopith©- 
cus  niger),  ancestor,  if  we  agree  with  the  Darwinians,  of  homo 
sapiens,  biggest  game  animal  of  all.  Thus  Africa  might  con- 
tend not  only  with  Assyria  as  the  cradle  of  historic  man  in 
Egypt,  but  with  Java  of  prehistoric  man. 

The  popularity  of  the  chase  has  led  to  alarming  signs  of 
extermination  of  many  animals.  Sixty  thousand  elephants 
were  slaughtered  in  Africa  during  1913.  During  the  war  lack 
of  easy  transportation  and  exciting  events  of  the  battlefields 
attracting  the  adventurous  spirits  of  the  world  have  resulted 
in  a  respite  in  hunting,  which  has  given  animals  an  opportunity 
to  replenish  the  earth. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  79 


Skin-hunters,  if  unrestrained,  would  destroy  every  hand- 
some beast  in  the  land.  Natives  possessing  modern  fire-arms 
would  bring  about  ruthless  and  indiscriminate  slaughter,  im- 
possible with  their  primitive  weapons.  The  camera  and  not 
the  rifle  is  the  better  implement  for  hunting  game  in  Africa,  as 
Buffalo  Jones  has  notably  exemplified. 

Big  game  is  necessarily  incompatible  with  agriculture. 
As  the  acreage  under  cultivation  is  rapidly  increasing  through- 
out the  continent  game  is  retreating  and  disappearing.  Real- 
izing the  importance  of  big  game  hunting  as  a  source  of  wealth 
the  several  colonies  have  established  almost  exorbitant  license 
fees  for  the  privilege  of  carrying  away  a  few  skins  and  limit- 
ing the  number  very  rigidly.  It  was  not  until  1909  that  the 
German  government  capitalized  the  financial  value  of  its  col- 
onial game,  when  the  large  revenue  to  the  neighboring  British 
province  led  Germany  to  adopt  a  similar  scale  of  license  fees 
in  her  East  African  Colony. 

The  famous  French  millinery  establishments 
Ornithological  are  largely  dependent  upon  Africa  for  their 
Specimens.  ornamental  plumings.  The  pursuit  of  egrets, 

marabouts,  herons,  cranes  and  flamingoes, 
has  been  so  ruthless  as  to  arouse  protest  from  American  Au- 
dubon  societies.  Among  the  other  birds  of  which  the  plumage 
is  sought  are  the  blackbird,  parrot,  jay  and  humming  birds  of 
extraordinary  brilliancy. 

Egrets,  marabouts  and  other  birds  of  valued  plumage 
abounding  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  seem  doomed  to 
extermination  unless  the  slaughter  of  these  victims  of  fash- 
ion is  prohibited.  It  is  estimated  that  300,000  fr.  worth  are  ex- 
ported yearly  from  the  Niger  basin  representing  a  million 
birds. 

Among  the  birds  of  Ethiopia  are  the  bustard,  guinea-fowl, 
red  partridge,  heath-cock,  grouse,  pigeon,  duck,  teal,  cur- 
lew and  woodcock.  Birds  of  prey  include  varieties  of  the  eagle 
family  and  the  vulture. 

In  1914,  Senegal  exported  214,493  live  birds  valued  at  66,- 
532  fr.,  173,813  kilos,  mounted  birds,  valued  at  43,453  fr. 

In  the  marshes  of  Madagascar  are  many  aquatic  birds — 
duck,  teal,  hens  and  numerous  waders.  Partridges,  quail,  snipes 
and  allouettes  are  found  in  remote  places.  Guinea  fowl  are 
found  in  the  northwest  and  there  are  many  varieties  of  birds 
in  the  forest.  The  Madagascar  black  parrot  (Coracopsis  vasa), 


80  RAW  PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


an  inhabitant  of  all  Madagascan  forests,  has  a  more  musical 
whistle  than  other  parrots. 

As  with  ivory,  exports  of  feathers  are  doomed  to  become 
smaller  and  smaller  unless  measures  are  taken  to  conserve  the 
supply. 

On  May   19,   1900,  an  agreement 

International  Game  Law  was  made  between  England,  Ger- 
of  Africa.  many,  Spain,  Belgium  (for  the 

Congo   Free   State),  France,  Italy 

and  Portugal,  for  the  preservation  of  game  in  a  zone  bounded 
by  the  20th  parallel  north  of  the  Equator  on  the  north,  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west,  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean 
on  the  east,  and  the  northern  boundary  of  German  Southwest 
Africa  and  the  south  bank  of  the  Zambezi  on  the  south.  * 

The  object  of  the  International  Agreement  of  1900  is  the 
prevention  of  useful  animal  destruction,  and  it  specifies,  among 
other  provisions,  that  ostriches,  marabouts,  and  egrets  are  to 
be  killed  in  limited  numbers  only.  It  provides  for  the 
constitution  of  preserves  where  hunting,  capturing,  and  killing 
of  animals  designated  would  be  prohibited  without  a  permit 
issued  by  the  governor. 

Owing  to  past  indiscriminate  butchery  of 
Laws  for  game   different   governments   of   African 

Protecting  Game,  colonies  have  made  laws  for  the  purpose 
of  protecting  animals.  These  laws  in  re- 
cent years  have  become  stringent  and  grow  more  so  as  wild 
animals  become  more  scarce.  Certain  beasts  which  were  al- 
most exterminated  are  now  wholly  protected  by  law.  In  con- 
tradistinction to  these  laws  of  protection  for  certain  wild  ani- 
mals, the  governments  offer  rewards  for  the  killing  of  car- 
nivora  that  are  destructive  to  human  beings  and  other  animals. 
In  British  Africa,  however,  lions  and  cheetahs,  which  are 
among  the  most  destructive,  are  partially  protected. 

Practically  every  colony  has  close  seasons  for  game  and 
requires  hunters  to  obtain  a  game  license  ranging  from  £1  to 
£50  in  the  various  colonies.  Non-residents  pay  more  than  resi- 
dents for  privileges,  but  both  are  limited  in  numbers  of  animals 
killed.  Greyhounds  and  hunting  dogs  are  heavily  taxed.  Sale 
of  eggs  and  meat  of  wild  game  is  strictly  supervised.  Shoot- 
ing with  lights  at  night  is  restricted. 

*  Those  desiring  to  ascertain  the  full  context  of  this  agreement  should 
consult  Parliamentary  Paper.  Africa  No.  5,  1900. 


RAW   PRODUCTS  OF   AFRICA  81 


In  Natal,  game  reserves,  aggregating  454  square  miles,  are 
protected  by  the  government.  Shooting  on  Crown  lands  is  not 
allowed  without  special  permit  from  the  Provincial  Secretary. 

In  Bechuanaland  the  elephant,  giraffe,  eland  and  the  os- 
trich are  wholly  protected,  and  the  penalty  for  killing  one  of 
these  beasts  is  £150,  or  twelve  months'  imprisonment.  Large 
game  of  this  region  includes  the  wild  ostrich,  hippopotamus, 
rhinoceros,  buffalo,  zebra,  quagga  and  antelopes.  Licenses  are 
granted  only  to  those  interested  in  obtaining  specimens  or 
shooting  for  sport,  and  are  not  allowed  to  any  persons  likely 
to  vary  from  the  conditions  of  the  license.  The  number  of 
specimens  is  limited  to  two  of  each  variety. 

In  the  Transvaal  the  close  season  for  most  game  is  from 
September  1  to  April  14.  The  fees  for  shooting  are  fixed  by 
the  Administration  from  time  to  time,  varying  with  the  abund- 
ance or  scarcity  of  game.  Anyone  selling  or  lending  arms  or 
ammunition  to  a  native  is  liable  to  a  fine  of  £25  or  imprison- 
ment. A  permit  to  sell  game  costs  £3  per  annum.  Poaching  is 
punishable  but  is  common  in  some  districts. 

Rhodesia,  in  the  northwestern  part,  has  15,000  square 
miles  set  apart  as  game  reserves.  There  is  no  close  season, 
but  game  is  protected  from  October  to  June  by  long  grass,  the 
longest  in  the  world,  which  often  grows  to  10  feet. 

In  German  East  Africa,  prior  to  the  war,  certain  animals 
were  absolutely  protected,  chief  among  which  were  the  os- 
trich and  chimpanzee. 

The  German  colonial  governments  had  awakened  to 
the  fact  that  large  reservations  should  be  set  apart  as  sanct- 
uaries for  game.  The  railroad  trip  from  the  coast  to  the  cap- 
ital of  British  East  Africa  is  now  a  most  instructive  trip 
through  a  natural  zoological  garden. 

British  East  Africa,  in  its  game  law  of  1909  has  four  kinds 
of  licenses  for  hunting,  two  for  residents.  The  others  are  the 
sportsman's  license  of  £50  a  year,  and  traveler's  license,  avail- 
able for  one  month  and  costing  £1. 

No  game  may  legally  be  killed  in  the  protectorate  of  Brit- 
ish East  Africa  without  license.  The  sportsman's  license  cost 
£50  in  1905,  which  provides  a  certain  limit  of  game  to  be 
killed.  A  resident  farmer  is  liable  to  a  fine  if  he  kills  in  ex- 
cess of  this  number  even  to  protect  his  own  crops  from  destruc- 
tion. 


82  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


Somaliland  has  two  game  reserves  in  the  mountains  to  the 
southeast  of  Berbera. 

In  Abyssinia,  a  country  replete  with  game,  a  license  is 
required  for  elephant,  giraffe  and  lion  only.  Naturalists  find 
a  country  like  Abyssinia  a  treasure  house.  The  thousands  of 
butterflies  and  other  insects  not  yet  classified  oifer  fruitful 
field  for  pioneer  work. 

Wild  Barbary  sheep  may  be  killed  in  the  countries  bor- 
dering the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Africa  is  a  country  of  such  magnificent  distances 
Outlook,  that  much  of  the  hunted  game  is  yet  able  to  flee  to 
shelters  which  have  not  yet  echoed  to  the  hunter's 
rifle.  As  a  general  proposition  the  big  game  of  Africa  is  grad- 
ually diminishing,  some  animals  much  more  noticeably  than 
others.  The  lion,  pursued  both  as  a  quarry  of  the  trophy  hunt- 
er and  as  predatory  vermin  by  the  African  stock-raisers,  is  on 
the  wane;  the  elephant,  whose  tusks  have  been  made  an  object 
of  value  by  man,  and  because  of  his  disregard  of  the  pur- 
poses for  which  fences  are  erected,  is  doomed  to  a  similar  fate ; 
the  jackal  and  hyena  are  condemned  as  outcasts  of  the  animal 
family  by  all  human  kind;  the  crocodile  and  alligator  from 
their  fondness  for  luckless  humans  who  chance  to  enter  their 
aqueous  element,  and  the  giraffe,  so  conspicuous  and  easily  cap- 
tured, though  innocent  of  crimes  against  civilization,  are  pass- 
ing from  the  stage.  But  on  the  other  hand,  as  the  lions  and 
leopards  are  killed  off,  their  prey,  like  the  zebra,  hartebeeste, 
the  Cape  buffalo,  through  protective  laws  and  natural  re-pro- 
duction, are  increasing  in  many  places.  Roosevelt,  after  his 
wandering  through  the  African  game  trails  (1909)  said  there 
was  no  sport  in  Africa  to  compare  with  hunting  the  moose  in 
Maine,  because  every  time  you  fired  your  gun  you  brought 
down  something  and  were  not  obliged  warily  and  patiently  to 
stalk  your  game  in  alert  expectation.  For  years  to  come  Africa 
will  be  the  best  hunting  ground  of  the  world  for  big  game. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  83 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS 

The  minerals  of  Africa  have  been  the  strongest  attraction 
to  white  settlers  and  the  chief  source  of  wealth,  amounting  to 
nearly  one-half  the  value  of  exports.  Many  minerals  in  Africa 
are  not  mined  because  the  native  inhabitants  are  not  sufficient- 
ly advanced  in  civilization  to  give  them  value,  although  gold, 
tin  and  iron  have  been  smelted  in  small  quantities  for  cen- 
turies. 

The  vast  continent  has  not  been  fully  prospected  but 
minerals  seem  to  be  remarkably  well  located  and  with  de- 
velopment of  hydro-electric  power  and  transportation  facili- 
ties there  should  be  rapid  increase  of  output  as  labor  is  plenti- 
ful. Probably  the  richest  mineral  belt  in  the  world  extends 
from  the  copper  fields  of  Katanga  through  the  chromium  beds 
of  Rhodesia  and  the  gold  reefs  of  the  Rand  to  the  diamond 
pipes  of  Kimberly. 

The  volcanic  ranges  of  Italy  and  Sicily  extend  across  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  to  Northern  Africa,  creating  beds  of  sul- 
phur and  gypsum.  A  large  portion  of  Northern  Africa  was 
once  submerged  beneath  the  ocean  and  submarine  precipita- 
tions of  salt  and  soda  were  extensively  formed.  The  Moroc- 
can massif  under  projected  French  development,  gives  prom- 
ise of  a  large  yield  of  phosphates,  iron,  lead  and  zinc. 

Minerals  of  which  the  exportable  surplus  dominates  world 
markets  are :  Gold,  44  per  cent,  of  world's  output ;  diamonds, 
90  per  cent. ;  phosphates,  50  per  cent. ;  chromium,  50  per  cent. 
Important  factors  in  world  trade  are  copper,  tin,  coal,  man- 
ganese, alabaster,  asbestos  and,  during  the  war,  graphite  from 
Madagascar.  Petroleum,  so  much  in  demand,  has  not  been 
discovered,  after  careful  prospecting,  in  appreciable  amount 
except  in  Egypt  near  the  Red  Sea.  Iron,  the  master  metal,  is 
found  throughout  Africa.  Coal  in  increasing  amount  is  being 
taken  from  the  Wankie  mines  in  South  Africa  and  a  consider- 
able quantity  exported.  The  Udi  coalfields  in  Nigeria  are 
yielding  a  fair  grade  of  bunker  coal  for  vessels. 

During  the  last  year  of  the  war  Nigeria  became  the  third 
country  in  production  of  tin  and  Rhodesia  led  the  world  in 
chrome  iron.  But  these  countries  may  not  hold  these  positions 
upon  a  normal  peace  basis. 

De  Launay,  the  French  mineralogist,  wrote  an  exhaustive 
book  on  the  minerals  of  Africa,  1903. 


84  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


GOLD 

From  time  immemorial  gold  has  been  mined  in  Africa.  As 
early  as  3800  B.  C.,  Menes  of  Egypt  fixed  the  ratio  of  value  of 
gold  to  silver  at  2%  to  1.  The  famous  mines  of  Ophir  in  Sol- 
omon's day  are  said  to  have  been  in  Mozambique. 

The  gold  of  Africa  is  found  either  in  reefs,  like  the  Rand, 
which  is  a  bed  of  conglomerate  as  thick  as  20  feet,  contain- 
ing deposits  of  ore,  or  in  alluvial  deposits  which  are  known 
on  the  Gold  Coast  as  bankets.  The  alluvial  deposits  are 
worked  from  above  ground,  often  by  hydraulic  process;  but 
the  deep  level  mining  is  carried  on  by  shafts  which  often  ex- 
tend a  thousand  feet  into  the  earth. 

The  world  production  of  gold  is  declining.  For  1918,  the 
output  was  $377,300,000;  for  1915,  $468,725,000.  Africa 
produced  43  per  cent. 

The  operation  of  extracting  gold  in  mines 
How  Produced,  consists  of  (1)  mining;  (2)  crushing;  (3) 
extraction  of  the  gold  from  ores  by  disso- 
lution and  smelting.  Often  the  mechanical  process  of  ex- 
traction is  sufficient,  or  requires  only  a  slight  mechanical  con- 
centration followed  by  amalgamation  and  refining.  The  plac- 
er method  consists  in  washing  of  sand  in  a  wooden  tub  or  pan, 
and  subjecting  the  auriferous  gravel  to  the  motion  of  a  stream, 
or  on  a  larger  scale  the  demolition  of  high  embankments  by 
powerful  jets  of  water;  the  gold  is  then  gathered  by  means  of 
sluices,  or  by  dredging.  Metallurgical  treatment  of  gold  is 
constantly  playing  a  more  important  part  in  mining  low  grade 
ores. 

Gold  in  America  is  worth  $20  per  ounce,  but  often  costs 
more  to  obtain  it  with  increased  labor  wages.  As  a  by-product 
in  silver,  copper,  lead  and  zinc  mining,  it  pays. 

The  British  Government  saved  many  millions  by  com- 
mandeering gold  for  the  duration  of  the  war  at  pre-war  prices, 
since  the  cost  of  production  has  greatly  increased.  The  aver- 
age cost  of  working  gold  per  ton  in  1914  was  16s  8d,  and  in 
December,  1917,  it  was  20s.  The  yield  per  ton  averaged  1-7-1. 

A  10  per  cent,  tax  on  net  profits  is  paid  to  the  British 

Government  by  the  gold  mining  companies  of  the  Transvaal. 

The  most  essential  use  of  gold  is  for  currency.    Mixed 

Uses,     with  copper  in  the  proportion  of  9  to  1  it  is  struck  in 

the  mints  and  circulates  with  a  legal  stamp  upon  it  as 

the  instrument  of  all  international  exchanges.    Forty  per  cent. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  85 


of  gold  is  used  in  the  industrial  arts,  jewelry,  gold  leaf,  watch 
chains,  plate,  pens,  dentistry.  Considerable  is  exported  to  the 
Far  East,  where  it  is  worn  on  the  body  and  hoarded. 

Upon  gold  is  based  the  credit  of  nations,  and  an  adequate 
gold  reserve  must  be  provided  to  sustain  the  financial  stabil- 
ity of  the  world.  Adverse  trade  balances  between  countries 
are  usually  paid  in  gold. 

In  Africa  the  principal  centre  of  gold  pro- 
Production  by  duction  and  the  first  in  the  world  is  the  Wit- 
Countries,  watersrand  or  Rand,  near  Johannesburg.  The 
first  mines  were  worked  in  the  Union  of 
South  Africa  in  1885,  and  since  1905  this  country  has  supplied 
about  43  per  cent,  of  the  world's  annual  output.  Two  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand  miners  are  employed  in  the  Rand  mines. 
They  receive  50  cents  per  day,  besides  food  and  lodging.  Fifty 
million  dollars  in  wages  are  paid  out  annually.  Three-fourths 
of  the  laborers  are  native  blacks  and  several  thousand 
Chinese.  There  are  10,000  stamps  at  work  crushing  more 
than  25,000,000  tons  of  ore  per  annum. 

The  Rand  in  a  narrow  district  28  miles  long  produces 
more  than  £24,000,000  of  gold  yearly  with  relatively  poor  ores, 
sometimes  panning  out  hardly  24s  per  ton.  In  proportion  as 
the  expenses  decrease,  the  mean  percentage  will  correspond- 
ingly fall  through  the  utilization  of  great  masses  that  are 
valueless  today.  The  total  production  of  the  Rand  up  to  date 
has  amounted  to  £475,000,000. 

The  most  profitable  gold-producing  area  is  shifting  from 
the  old  central  Rand  mines  to  what  is  known  as  the  Eastern 
Rand,  where  the  grade  of  ore  is  better  and  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion smaller  than  in  the  former  diggings. 

Working  Costs  of  Operation  of  Rand  Mines 

Supplies 35.5  per  cent,  of  total 

Labor 59       "      "       "      " 

Management,  etc 5.5    "      " 

Several  Transvaal  gold  mines  were  worked  at  a  loss 
during  the  war,  and  would  have  had  to  close  at  the  end  of  the 
year  1918,  unless  the  war  had  ended.  But  there  are  such  large 
properties  in  this  part  of  South  Africa  that  capitalists  are  en- 
deavoring to  revive  the  output. 

In  1917  the  grand  output  of  gold  for  the  Union  of  South 
Africa  was  valued  at  $186,255,000,  and  in  1918  the  value  was 
$174,060,000. 


86  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


British  East  Africa,  via  Mombassa,  exported  gold  in  1915, 
to  the  value  of  $1,386,995. 

Nigeria,  in  1915,  exported  1,409  oz.  of  raw  gold,  valued  at 
$25,000;  and  in  1916,  1,897  oz.  valued  at  $37,000. 

French  Somali,  in  1914,  exported  gold  ingots,  valued  at 
$45,800. 

The  gold  found  in  Angola  is  mostly  mixed  with  other  sub- 
stances, but  when  freed  is  of  good  quality.  The  greatest 
amount  is  found  high  up  on  the  plateau. 

Abyssinia  has  produced  gold  since  earliest  times,  but  the 
output  has  never  been  extensive.  The  railroad  from  Addis  to 
Jibouti  will  serve  to  promote  the  mining  operations  by  reduc- 
ing the  hazard  of  transportation. 

Madagascar  for  many  centuries  has  carried  on  the  gold 
industry  to  a  limited  extent.  The  natives  convert  their  gold 
into  personal  adornment;  the  elite  of  Madagascar  have  been 
known  to  carry  as  much  as  25  pounds  around  their  necks  and 
arms.  In  1912  Madagascar  produced  2,119,571.16  gr.  gold. 

The  highest  amount  of  gold  exported  from  Madagascar 
was  3,645  kilo,  in  1909 ;  in  1917  it  had  fallen  to  921  kilo.  Dur- 
ing the  past  25  years  more  than  40  tons  of  gold  have  been 
shipped  to  France. 

Egypt  in  ancient  times  supplied  much  of  the  gold  of  the 
world,  but  gold  mining  is  a  subordinate  industry  in  this  country 
today,  though  there  is  a  small  annual  output,  $125,000  worth 
(1914).  In  Dongola  mines  are  worked  in  more  or  less  paying 
quantities. 

In  Mozambique  gold  fields  have  been  worked  intermit- 
tently for  centuries.  Singal  is  a  modern  mine  not  known  to 
the  ancients. 

During  1913  Mozambique  exported  gold  bars  to  the  value 
of  $113,000  via  Beira. 

The  output  of  gold  in  Manicaland  has  been : 

1913  47,137  oz. 

1914  48,984    " 

1915  38,002    " 

1916  35,579    " 

1917  37,937    " 

In  German  East  Africa  gold  is  found  near  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza.  The  rich  ore  is  difficult  to  mine  because  of  lack  of 
water  and  wood.  In  1911  German  East  Africa  exported  992 
pounds  of  gold,  valued  at  $243,580,  and  in  1912,  497  pounds, 
valued  at  $126,288. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  87 


Before  the  war  Germans  controlled  40  per  cent,  of  Afri- 
can gold  mines.  Under  control  of  Messrs.  Wernher,  Beit,  Eck- 
stein and  Co.,  was  45  per  cent,  of  the  Rand  output.  Nearly  all 
the  Rand  mines  are  controlled  by  eight  houses. 

In  the  Congo  gold  is  now  exploited  in  two  mining  centers, 
the  Katanga  and  Kilo  groups,  where  the  gold  is  obtained  chief- 
ly by  hydraulic  process.  Three  of  the  mines  are  operated  by 
the  State,  and  the  largest  output  of  gold  comes  from  the  State 
mines  at  Kilo.  The  number  of  gold  mines  is  increasing  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Bokwana. 

In  1906  Belgian  Congo  exported  602  pounds  of  gold,  val- 
ued at  $171,000.  In^915  the  output  was  3,720  pounds. 

Rhodesia  numbers  seventh  among  the  countries  of  the 
world  in  gold  output,  having  surpassed  Mexico. 

In  1914  Northern  Rhodesia  exported  raw  gold  to  the 
value  of  $5,100,  and  Southern  Rhodesia,  to  the  value  of  $17,- 
500,000.  In  1915  the  Rhodesian  output  of  gold  amounted  to 
more  than  $19,000,000,  of  which  $18,558,500  was  exported. 

In  1916,  the  output  of  gold  amounted  to  $19,476,000;  in 
1917,  to  $17,470,000. 

West  Africa  is  rich  in  gold  but  the  climate  is  so  unhealth- 
ful  that  few  white  laborers  go  into  the  mines.  Hence  the  out- 
put of  gold  is  comparatively  small  and  decreases  rather  than 
increases. 

In  French  West  Africa  gold  is  still  obtained  by  primitive 
methods.  Soil  is  extracted  and  placed  in  a  gourd  full  of  water. 
After  several  washings  in  a  series  of  gourds  graduated  on  a 
smaller  and  smaller  scale,  nothing  remains  but  a  black  resi- 
duum containing  the  gold  dust.  This  is  dried  and  then  by 
blowing  upon  it  lightly  gold  is  obtained,  with  a  loss  of  one- 
third  to  one-fourth.  The  powder  is  melted  and  worked  by 
smiths  into  torsade  rings.  This  gold  is  worth  about  75  cents 
per  gram.  Nuggets  are  extremely  rare.  The  multitudinous 
superstitions  connected  with  this  industry  are  an  obstacle  to  its 
development. 

In  1917  the  output  of  gold  in  French  West  Africa  was 
$7,500,000. 

Senegal.  In  the  12th  century  El  Edrisi,  an  Arabian  geog- 
rapher described  the  Senegal  River  as  the  River  of  Gold.  An- 
drew Brue,  director  of  the  Senegal  Company  from  1697  to 
1725,  wrote :  "Compagnon,  who  has  been  sent  to  explore  this 
region  believes  that  if  the  mines  were  exploited  they  would 


88  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


yield  much  more  gold  than  the  mines  of  Peru."  But  this  coun- 
try never  panned  out  according  to  expectations. 

The  Gold  Coast  is  very  rich  in  minerals,  particularly  gold. 

The  Oxford  Survey  of  the  British  Empire  says : 

"Nature's  poundings,  rpastings,  and  washings  in  the  past  ages  have 
disintegrated  the  gold-bearing  quartz,  accumulated  the  precious  metal 
thus  set  free,  and  deposited  it  in  beds  of  clay.  Gold,  therefore,  has  from 
time  immemorial  been  one  of  the  principal  exports  of  the  country — hence 
the  name^— and  since  the  pacification  of  Ashanti,  gold-mining  has  gone 
ahead  very  rapidly." 

In  1915,  the  Gold  Coast  produced  gold  to  the  value  of  $8,- 
500,000,  and  in  1916,  to  the  value  of  about  $8,000,000.  The 
average  number  of  laborers  employed  daily  by  the  mining  and 
dredging  companies  throughout  1916  was  15,296.  There  was 
no  difficulty  in  obtaining  surface  labor,  but  there  was  a  short- 
age of  underground  labor. 

The  Ivory  Coast  once  seemed  to  be  the  promised  land 
of  gold  and  the  natives  still  decorate  themselves  with  great 
quantities  of  this  metal.  The  principal  chiefs  are  very  rich, 
having  chairs  of  solid  gold  and  wearing  sandals  with  gold 
soles.  They  are  buried  with  gold  breast-plates.  On  holidays 
persons  of  both  sexes  load  themselves  with  very  costly  jewelry. 
Gold  dust  is  the  current  money  and  many  natives  have  scales 
for  gold,  with  gold  weights.  At  Baoule  native  exploitation  of 
gold  is  active,  but  in  Sanwi  there  are  hundreds  of  abandoned 
shafts. 

.  Since  the  beginning  of  history  Africa  has  supplied  a 
Outlook,  larger  share  of  the  world's  gold  than  any  other 
continent  and  will  probably  continue  as  the  leader 
many  years.  In  the  absence  of  discovery  of  new  gold  fields  on 
a  large  scale,  the  tendency  is  toward  a  declining  world's  out- 
put. The  world's  highest  production  of  gold  was  reached  in 
1915,  when  the  output  was  valued  at  approximately  $480,000,- 
000.  The  Transvaal  share  of  this  was  40  per  cent,  and  the  share 
of  the  British  Empire  61  per  cent.  The  percentage  of  the 
world's  supply  contributed  by  South  Africa  has  steadily  in- 
creased during  the  past  30  years,  and  reached  its  highest 
point  in  1918,  44  per  cent.  The  amount  of  gold  mined  was  re- 
duced some  10  per  cent,  by  the  war  because  of  the  high  wages 
of  labor,  scarcity  of  supplies  and  mining  machinery,  and  most 
notably  from  the  terrible  scourge  of  influenza  which  swept 
through  the  mining  camps,  and  also  to  a  reduction  in  the  grade 
of  ores.  The  Transvaal  Chamber  of  Mines  appointed  an 
Economic  Commission,  which  reported  in  1914  that  the  tons 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  89 


of  payable  ore  remaining  in  the  mines  was  550,000,000.  The 
amount  taken  out  of  the  mines  per  annum  averaged  about  27,- 
000,000  pounds.  The  Cape  Times  reckoned  that  the  produc- 
tion would  continue  on  the  current  scale  only  five  years  from 
that  date  under  normal  conditions,  and  that  17  years  later  the 
tonnage  would  be  reduced  to  14,000,000  tons  per  annum.  Dur- 
ing the  war  period  many  of  the  low  grade  mines  through  ad- 
verse operating  conditions  were  compelled  to  suspend  and  ap- 
peal to  the  Government  for  a  subsidy.  A  Commission  was  ap- 
pointed to  investigate  the  merits  of  the  case  and  reported  ear- 
ly in  1919  against  Government  subsidy,  but  a  premium  is 
paid  in  1920. 

The  State  has  organized  mines  in  which  the  Union  Gov- 
ernment shares  in  the  profits.  These  mines  have  been  excep- 
tionally prosperous. 

Another  examination  of  the  gold  fields  was  made,  partic- 
ularly the  great  unopened  district  of  the  East  Rand.  This  latter 
report  brought  the  total  available  tonnage  to  1,160,000,000, 
and  predicted  a  gradual  increase  for  20  years,  until  a  total  of 
65,000,000  tons  per  annum  would  be  reached;  then  a  pause  of 
ten  years  at  that  figure,  followed  by  a  slow  decline 
through  three  generations.  Sir  Robert  Kotze,  a  South  African 
Government  mining  engineer  estimates  the  reserves  of  the 
Rand  at  $2,000,000,000.  Others,  who  are  possibly  promoters 
or  share  floaters,  set  the  figure  at  $3,000,000,000,  which  is 
more  than  the  total  output  of  the  Rand  during  40  years. 

Gold  is  found  in  many  regions  in  Africa  in  payable 
quantities.  The  desideratum  in  most  cases  is  adequate  trans- 
portation facilities  to  shipping  ports.  Much  of  the  gold  lies  in 
regions  unsuited  to  habitation  by  white  men,  but  the  great  de- 
mand following  the  war  for  an  increased  gold  reserve  will  tend 
to  stimulate  exploitation  of  all  these  regions.  The  sections 
which  promise  immediate  development  are  the  Katanga  mines, 
the  deposits  of  Rhodesia  and  Mozambique,  and  the  mines  of 
Abyssinia.  The  ancient  goldfields  of  the  Gold  Coast  show  no 
remarkable  fluctuations  in  annual  output. 

DIAMONDS 

The  name  is  derived  from  a  Greek  word  meaning  ada- 
mant. The  diamond  is  the  most  highly  prized  mineral  because 
it  combines  the  purity  and  transparency  of  water  with  the 


90  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 

vivacity  of  fire.  Diamonds  were  prized  as  long  ago  as  6000 
and  7000  B.  C.  though  at  that  time  the  pearl  was  the  most 
valuable  gem.  They  were  first  mined  in  India  where  they 
were  believed  to  be  the  gift  of  heaven,  crystallized  in  the 
earth  by  thunderbolts. 

The  sparkle  of  the  diamond  comes  from  cutting  the  stone 
into  facets.  The  famous  Cullinan  diamond,  found  in  1905, 
weighs  one  and  one-fourth  pounds  or  3,000  carats,  size  4"x 
2i/2"x2".  A  carat  is  equivalent  to  205.3  milligrams. 

Eighty  percent  of  the  supply  of  diamonds  has  been  placed 
on  the  market  since  1889.  Modern  demand  is  very  great. 

The  total  world  production  of  diamonds  up  to  1920  is 
given  as  188,000,000  carats  of  which  Africa  produced  154,- 
000,000  carats,  Brazil  14,000,000,  India  12,000,000,  German 
Southwest  Africa  6,500,000. 

African  diamonds  are  divided  into  the  following  classes : 
Bye-waters,  capes,  fine  capes,  silver  capes,  Kimberley  crystals, 
Wesseltons  and  Jagersf onteins ;  they  are  subdivided  into  four 
point,  two  point  or  three  point  stones.  In  cutting,  the  stone  is 
first  divided  with  a  chisel  according  to  cleavage  into  two  or 
more  small  stones  and  these  are  faceted  by  grinding.  When 
cut  the  diamond  is  held  in  a  lathe  and  while  it  revolves  is  cut 
by  another  diamond.  The  diamonds  of  South  Africa  differ  from 
all  others  in  being  brighter  and  freer  from  incrustation  which 
allows  detection  of  any  defects  while  in  the  natural  state. 

The  annual  world's  supply  of  diamonds  is 
World's  Supply,  about  6,000,000  carats.  Only  the  diamonds 
from  South  Africa  are  of  great  value  as 
gems.  Diamonds  from  other  countries,  on  account  of  milky 
flaws  and  carbon,  are  chiefly  used  for  drills  and  mechanical 
purposes.  Brazil  eclipsed  India  during  eighteenth  century; 
South  Africa  eclipsed  Brazil  during  nineteenth  as  the  diamond 
center. 

Frank  Vincent  describes  the  formation  of  the  diamond 
pipes  as  follows: 

Diamonds  were  first  obtained  upon  the  surface  in  a  yellow 
earth,  the  result  of  decomposition  of  strata.  Then  going  down 
they  were  found  in  a  sort  of  tough  blue  clay,  a  hard  lavaklike 
earth  which  extends  to  a  great  depth. 

Hard  rock  containing  shale  has  been  altered  by  the  action 
of  heat  produced  by  penetration  of  volcanic  forces  through  it, 
and  this  heat,  causing  the  liberation  of  some  volatile  hydro-car-  I 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  91 


bon  has  produced  the  diamond.  An  outburst  of  heat  is  forced 
from  below,  resulting  in  the  conversion  of  carbon  into  the  crys- 
talline form  which  we  call  diamonds.  At  Kimberley,  diamonds  oc- 
cur in  a  great  variety  of  colors,  green,  blue,  pink,  brown,  yellow, 
orange  and  white. 

The  blue  clay  is  hoisted  by  shafts  into  cars,  then  pulverized 
and  washed  in  a  rotary  drum.  The  residue  is  cleaned  by  boil- 
ing in  a  mixture  of  nitrate  and  sulphuric  acid. 

The  blue  clay  is  taken  to  washing  machines  where 
How  it  is  agitated  with  water  and  forced  through  a  se- 

Produced.  ries  of  revolving  cylinders  perforated  with  holes 
one  inch  in  diameter.  The  gravel  is  then  sent  to 
the  pulsators — steel  sieves  with  holes  from  1/16  to  %  inches 
in  diameter  which  separate  the  sizes.  The  small  sizes  are  con- 
veyed to  a  washing  pan  and  the  large  ones  to  revolving  tables 
where  the  large  diamonds  are  taken  out.  The  remaining 
stones  then  go  to  the  grease  shaking  tables,  a  series  of  slop- 
ing corrugated  iron  tables  coated  with  grease  which  are  shak- 
en by  percussion  as  the  gravel  goes  over  them — only  the  dia- 
monds adhere  to  the  grease.  The  crystals  are  cleaned  in  a 
mixture  of  acids,  then  assorted,  weighed  and  registered. 

All  diamonds  must  be  registered  and  a  severe  penalty  is 
imposed  for  under-valuation. 

It  requires  little  capital  in  the  "wet  diggings"  as 
Cost  of  the  alluvial  deposits  on  the  rivers  and  streams 

Production,  are  called,  but  the  yield  is  uncertain  and  irregu- 
lar. But  the  dry  diggings  or  shafts  are  expen- 
sive to  operate.  One-half  carat  to  1600  Ibs.  of  matrix  pays. 
The  mines  are  going  deeper  all  the  time  making  production 
more  expensive,  seldom  less  than  1,000  feet  deep.  The  De 
Beers  Consolidated  Mining  Company  occupies  200,000  acres, 
employes  about  15,000  natives  at  five  to  eight  dollars  per 
week,  2,500  white  men  at  $60  to  $100  per  month,  all  em- 
ployees being  kept  in  a  compound  with  no  communication 
with  the  outside  world.  Expenses  of  operation  are  enormous. 
The  cost  of  production  is  estimated  at  10  per  cent,  of  gross 
profits.  The  Transvaal  government  exacts  60  per  cent,  tax  on 
all  diamonds  mined  within  its  jurisdiction.  About  $1.10  per 
ton  is  the  cost  of  milling. 

The  diamond  export  duty  act  of  1917  provides  for  export 
duty  of  5  per  cent,  on  all  rough,  uncut  diamonds  from  the 
Union  of  South  Africa.  During  the  past  ten  years  the  rate 
of  taxation  has  risen  from  7  per  cent,  to  22%  per  cent. 


92  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


The  Kimberley  mines  are  rich  in  diamonds  but  are 
Relative  characterized  by  poor  quality  and  have  a  larger  per- 
Quality.  centage  of  bort  than  other  mines  of  that  district. 
The  product  is  in  fragments  and  sometimes  smoky 
and  yellow  in  color.  The  De  Beers  has  all  kinds  and  colors. 
The  Jagerfontein  mine  is  free  from  pyrites  and  has  the  purest 
quality  of  stones  with  a  brilliancy  similar  to  those  of  India. 
Blue  "Jagers"  command  the  highest  price  of  any  South  Afri- 
can diamonds.  Like  all  first  water  gems  they  are  subject  to 
bad  flaws  and  what  are  termed  carbon  spots. 

"Bort",  crystallized  diamond  not  sufficiently 
Uses  and  transparent  to  cut  as  jewels,  is  used  for  me- 

By-Products.  chanical  purposes.  One-fourth  the  yield  of  the 
Brazilian  diamond  fields  and  about  45  per 
cent,  of  the  African  mines  consists  of  bort.  Bort  crystals  of 
one-half  to  one  carat  are  used  as  teeth  in  saws  for  marble  and 
stone  and  as  jewels  for  meters  in  electrical  machines.  Small 
pieces  of  bort  are  crushed  to  powder  for  use  as  an  abrasive. 

Small  diamonds  known  as  "glazier  diamonds"  are  used 
for  cutting  glass ;  "flats"  are  crystals  or  parts  of  crystals  into 
which  holes  are  bored  so  they  can  be  used  as  dies  for  wire 
drawing;  "Splints"  are  sharp  pointed  splinters  of  diamond 
crystal  obtained  from  refuse  of  cutting  and  cleaving  and  are 
used  for  small  drills,  for  watch  jewels,  electrical  machinery. 
Fifty  per  cent,  is  lost  in  cutting. 

Carbonado  or  carbon  is  the  most  important  form  of  dia- 
mond for  mechanical  purposes  and  is  used  in  the  larger  oper- 
ations of  deep  boring.  Diamonds  have  been  produced  arti- 
ficially by  French  and  English  chemists.  They  are  called 
paste  diamonds. 

Prices 

New  York  quotations  for  bort  in  1911  were : 

1  to  3  carat  for  drills  $  8.00  to  $     15.00  per  carat 

%  to  1  carat  for  saws  3.00  to  4.00  "  " 

Crystals  for  meters 3.00  to  3.50  "  " 

Small  and  poor  for  crushing .75  "  " 

Glazier  diamonds  6.00  to  50.00  "  " 

Flats  3.50  to  8.00  "  " 

Splints 3.00  to  10.00  "  " 

Carbon   85.00  to    2380.00  "  " 

"      3  to  6  carats 60.00  to  85.00  "  " 

"      1%  to  21/2  carats 45.00  to  55.00  "  " 

"      1  carat  .  35.00  to  40.00  "  " 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  93 


"      %  to  %  carat 30.00 

"      %   carat  15.00 

"      Small    8.00 

The  average  price  of  rough  stones  before  the  war  was 
$10  per  carat.  Since  the  war  price  has  increased  enormously. 

Wages  of  diamond  workers  have  been  raised  20  to  30 
per  cent,  so  that  the  gems  cost  30  to  40  per  cent,  more  than 
they  did  two  years  ago. 

The  South  African  diamonds  are  shipped  to  London, 
Markets.  Amsterdam  and  New  York.  In  1898  the  value  of 
rough  diamonds  imported  into  the  U.  S.  was  $2,- 
513,800 ;  in  1908,  $2,287,440.  The  stones  come  generally  from 
Europe  to  the  United  States.  The  principal  center  for  dia- 
mond cutting  was  formerly  at  Amsterdam,  but  now  much  of 
the  expert  cutting  is  done  in  New  York  and  London.  The 
import  trade  in  New  York  is  done  principally  by  Jewish  firms. 
The  United  States  is  the  largest  buyer  of  diamonds  in  the 
world. 

The  African  mines  are  practically  under  the  control  of 
the  gigantic  trust  known  as  the  De  Beers  Consolidated  Mining 
Corporation,  which  so  regulates  the  output  of  diamonds  that 
the  supply  never  exceeds  the  demand  and  thus  the  prices  have 
always  maintained  a  paying  level. 

Ninety   per   cent,   of  the    world   production 
When  and  comes  from  South  Africa,  the  leading  mines 

Where  Found,  being  the  De  Beers,  Premier,  Kimberley  and 
Jagersfontein.  Pure  stones  form  only  8  per 
cent,  of  the  product  and  of  this  only  a  small  percentage  are 
blue  diamonds,  25  per  cent,  are  second  water,  20  per  cent,  are 
third  water,  and  the  remainder  "bort". 

Diamonds  were  first  discovered  in  Kimberley  in  1867 
and  unlike  all  previously  known  deposits  are  found  in  huge 
pipes  or  chimneys  filled  with  blue  clay.  As  the  reefs  or  walls 
of  these  chimneys  often  caved  in  shafts  were  sunk  when  im- 
proved machinery  was  introduced,  and  as  the  mines  became 
deeper,  the  clay  was  found  to  be  harder  so  that  nowadays  it 
is  spread  out  above  ground  for  six  months  or  more  to  soften 
before  it  is  crushed.  All  the  diamond  chimneys  of  South  Af- 
rica contain  the  same  kind  of  rock  called  kimberlite.  Alluvial 
deposits  containing  diamonds  exist  in  Orange  River  Colony, 
in  the  Transvaal  and  in  German  Southwest  Africa;  also  on 
the  watershed  of  Limpopo  and  Zambesi  rivers  in  Matabele- 
land. 


94  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


During  the  war  diamond  mining  suffered  more  than  most 
industries.  From  September,  1914,  to  January,  1916,  work  in 
the  mines  was  almost  at  a  standstill,  but  a  slight  increase  in 
demand  in  the  beginning  of  1916  caused  washing  operations 
to  start  again  on  a  small  scale.  Later  in  that  year  prosperity 
in  the  United  States  caused  greater  demand  and  the  business 
became  most  remarkable  for  a  time  of  world  war. 

In  April,  1917,  the  State  Mining  Commission  of  the  Union 
recommended  the  State  acquisition  of  all  diamond  mines  within 
the  territory  of  the  Union  with  a  view  to  effective  control  of 
output. 

In  the  Cape  province  the  De  Beers  Company  practically 
control  all  the  mines,  including  the  Kimberley,  De  Beers,  Wes- 
selton,  Bultfontein  and  Dutoitspan.  The  syndicators  claim 
that  combining  these  interests  greatly  reduces  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction. 

The  Kimberley  mines  were  closed,  to  avoid  over-produc- 
tion in  1909,  and  the  De  Beers  mine  was  closed  in  1908. 
Diamond  Production  in  South  Africa 

Average  value 
Carats  per  carat 

1915  103,386  $18.32 

1916  2,346,330  11.57 

1917  2,902,416  12.93 


5,352,132  $14.30 

In  the  Zambesi  district  in  Southern  Rhodesia  are 
Rhodesia,  large  diamond  pipes,  worked  by  the  De  Beers 
Company,  which,  after  heated  litigation,  was  fin- 
ally chartered  to  the  right  of  all  diamonds  found  in  Rhodesia. 
The  output  of  diamonds  from  Southern  Rhodesia  to  De- 
cember 31,  1908,  was  7,019  carats,  valued  at  $155,000,  from 
the  Somabula  workings.  Fluctuations  during  recent  years  are 
shown  in  the  following  figures: 

1913 997  carats,  valued  at  $38,000 

1914   1,004      ""  "       "     19,500 

1915    1 272      "  "       "       5,100 

1916 1,021      "  "       "     26,500 

1917   620      "  "     14,600 

Indications  of  diamonds  have  been  found  near  Zambesi, 

Durban,  Delagoa  Bay,  Bwana,  M'Kubwa  and  Carnarvon. 

Diamonds  are  found  in  several  districts  of  the 
The  Congo.  Congo  and  there  are  good  bearing  pipes  on  the 

Kundelungu  plateau  which  have  been  worked 
but  not  to  make  a  paying  industry,  on  account  of  scarcity  of 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  95 


labor.  In  1912  machinery  was  taken  to  the  Kasai  district  by 
the  Societe  Internationale  Forestiere  et  Miniere,  a  company  of 
Belgians  and  Americans,  who  hold  the  concession. 

In  1915,  the  Congo  produced  49,000  carats  of  diamonds 
"  1916,     "          "  "          54,000      " 

"  1917,     "  85,000      " 

Diamonds    were    discovered    in    German 
German  Southwest  Africa  in  1908  in  the  Coastal 

Southwest  Africa.  Desert  during  railway  construction,  and 
have  since  been  found  to  extend  over  a 
territory  270  miles  long,  in  the  vicinity  of  Luderitz  Bay.  These 
deposits  are  believed  by  scientists  to  have  been  carried  by  the 
sea  from  a  submarine  diamond  pipe  off  Pomona.  These  dia- 
monds are  washed  from  a  thin  surface  deposit  of  sand  gravel 
in  places  15  feet  deep.  About  75  per  cent,  of  the  stones  are 
of  gold  color  but  usually  small  in  size,  averaging  five  carats, 
very  brilliant  and  resembling  Brazilian  stones.  Government 
claimed  all  right  to  ocean  floor  dredging. 

Up  to  August,  1914,  about  5,400,000  carats  had  been  ex- 
tracted valuing  approximately  $46,000,000,  being  about  $8.25 
a  carat.  Just  prior  to  the  war,  the  German  Government,  which 
controlled  the  industry  and  limited  the  yearly  output  to  1,038,- 
000  carats,  received  $10  per  carat,  and  in  the  last  sale  made  by 
that  government  (1914)  Pomona  diamonds  brought  $12.25, 
while  others  brought  $8.50. 

Before  the  war  the  German  Government  received  an  an- 
nual revenue  of  about  $2,000,000  from  African  diamonds.  The 
estimates  for  1914-1915  were  $3,350,000,  besides  the  divi- 
dends from  mines  directly  operated  by  the  Government,  in- 
dicating the  rapid  expansion  of  the  industry. 

Under  British  occupation  the  output  has  been: 

1915 13,409  carats,  valued  at  $    170,000 

1916   144,920      "  "       "     1,600,000 

1917   364,761      "  "     4,160,000 

At  the  time  of  the  African  discoveries  not  more 
Quantity,  than  100  stones  of  30  carats  existed.  The  amount 

exported  from  Africa  up  to  the  end  of  1908  was 
about  90,000,000  carats  of  which  55  per  cent,  was  suitable  for 
cutting  into  jewels.  The  addition  to  the  world's  stock  of  dia- 
mond jewels  since  the  discovery  of  the  African  mines  is  22,- 
000,000  carats,  a  probable  net  profit  to  the  mines  of  $750,000,- 
000. 

Most  of  the  English  diamond  cutting  has  been  done  in 


96  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


Holland,  but  the  Government  is  now  trying  to  establish  a  dia- 
mond cutting  factory  for  the  employment  of  crippled  soldiers. 

Marine  insurance  for  diamonds  was  almost  prohibitive 
during  the  war,  and  a  new  corporation,  South  African  Marine, 
Fire  &  General  Insurance  Company  was  formed  especially  for 
the  diamond  trade. 

The  supply  of  the  diamond  mines  seems  inexhausti- 
Outlook.  ble.  The  capacity  of  the  mines  is  three  times  the 
quantity  that  can  be  safely  thrown  on  the  market. 
The  De  Beers  Consolidated  Company  is  considered  the  most 
successful  trust  in  the  world,  and  has  made  immense  profits. 
Africa  will  probably  hold  a  corner  in  the  diamond  market 
for  years  to  come  with  gradually  increasing  output. 

The  potential  annual  production  is  approximately :  Union 
South  Africa,  5,000,000  carats;  Southwest  Africa,  1,000,000 
carats;  all  other  countries,  400,000  carats. 

COPPER 

Copper  (Cuprum),  a  dull-surfaced  mineral  having  a  me- 
tallic red  lustre,  is  the  most  universally  sought  of  the  non- 
precious  metals.  The  ore  consists  of  copper  bearing  minerals 
and  the  gangue,  or  matrix  of  rock,  usually  carbonates  or  sili- 
cates. Copper  combines  with  oxygen  to  form  cupric  oxide  and 
with  various  metals  to  form  alloys,  the  more  important  of  these 
being  bronze  (copper  with  tin),  brass  (copper  with  zinc), 
and  monel  metal  (copper  with  nickel).  Its  red  color  dis- 
tinguishes copper  from  all  other  metals.  It  is  malleable  and 
ductile.  One  hundred  and  thirty-five  pounds  constitute  a  bar, 
100  pounds  a  cake,  and  20  pounds  an  ingot. 

Copper  is  an  electrical  conductor,  second  only  to  silver. 

The  greater  part  of  the  world's  production  comes  from 
North  America  which  yields  68  per  cent,  of  the  whole  output, 
the  United  States  alone  furnishing  60  per  cent,  of  the  grand 
total  of  1,413,056  metric  tons  in  1917.  The  second  largest  pro- 
ducer of  copper  is  Japan,  124,306  tons  in  1917,  an  increase  of 
22  per  cent.  Copper  is  produced  also  in  Canada,  Mexico, 
Chile,  Peru,  Germany  and  Australia. 

Copper  output  of  Africa  in  1917  was  48,000  tons.  Pro- 
duction in  the  Transvaal,  20,174  long  tons  of  3.87  per  cent, 
ore,  compared  with  5.44  per  cent,  for  1916  and  7.33  per  cent, 
for  1915. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  97 


In  1918  Africa  produced  58,000  tons,  which  was  3.6  per 

cent,  of  the  world's  total  output. 

The  distribution  of  the   1917  output  in  Africa  was  as 

follows: 

Congo  60,000,000  Ibs. 

Transvaal   14,000,000    " 

Rhodesia   7,000,000    " 

Cape  Colony  7,000,000 

German  S.  W.  Africa 10,000,000    " 

Kham   2,000,000    " 

Northern  Africa  1,000,000    " 


105,000,000  Ibs. 

The  most  remarkable  copper  development  in  Af- 
Katanga.  rica  during  the  past  dozen  years  is  that  of  Katan- 
ga. Copper  in  the  Congo  is  divided  into  three 
groups,  that  of  the  coast,  of  Katanga  and  of  the  Ubangi.  The 
exports  of  copper  from  Katanga  in  1906  was  less  than  eight 
tons,  which  had  increased  to  50,000  tons  in  1918. 

Copper  is  so  abundant  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  Belgian  Con- 
go that  thirty  of  the  mines  contain  copper  enough  to  supply  the  world 
for  twenty  years  at  the  rate  of  600,000  tons  per  year.  Extraction  of 
the  ore  is  not  difficult.  The  ore  is  found  in  hills  from  50  to  80  meters 
high,  which  may  be  penetrated  by  horizontal  galleries;  except  in  favor- 
able conditions  miners  never  go  further  than  40  meters  under  ground. 
Motive  power  comes  from  the  powerful  water  falls  of  the  Lualaba, 
which  is  capable  of  furnishing  25,000  H.  P.  The  Rhodesia  Railway 
now  reaching  the  mining  region  crosses  the  coal  country  at  Wankie. 
In  the  Etoile  du  Congo  it  is  estimated  that  within  100  feet  of  the  surface 
there  are  over  200,000  tons  with  11.6  per  cent,  of  copper.  The  Kambove 
mines  are  reputed  to  contain  not  less  than  2,000,000  at  12  per  cent,  cop- 
per. The  output  for  1913  was  7,400  tons  of  bar  copper  from  60,000  tons 
of  ore  which  assays  from  12  to  18  per  cent,  pure  copper.  There  are  three 
blast  furnaces  in  operation  and  more  under  construction.  Coke  is  manu- 
factured at  the  rate  of  3,000  tons  per  month  from  low  grade  coal.  The 
gas  produced  is  used  for  heating  boilers.  A  number  of  the  skilled  furnace 
men  operating  the  smelters  were  Germans  who  were  interned  during  the 
War  and  whose  places  were  taken  by  Welch  furnace  men.  An  electric  pow- 
er station  is  shortly  to  be  established  by  making  use  of  the  Falls  on  the 
Lufria  river  near  Coney,  providing  20,000  H.  P.  during  the  low  water 
period. 

Copper  mining  has  taken  rapid  strides  during  the  last  half 
dozen  years,  and  this  commodity  soon  will  be  the  leading  ex- 
port from  the  Belgian  Congo.  Katanga  derives  its  industrial 
importance  from  the  great  copper  deposits.  About  40  per  cent, 
of  the  shares  of  the  big  Belgian  mining  companies  are  owned 
by  British  capitalists.  It  is  estimated  that  the  ore  of  the  Ka- 
tanga mines  above  the  water  level  is  over  40,000,000  tons,  av- 
eraging 8  per  cent,  copper.  Besides  the  mines  already  in  op- 
eration there  are  at  least  150  copper  deposits  of  promising 
importance  not  yet  exploited.  Near  Katanga  carbonate  and 


98  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


silicate  of  copper  are  found,  and  lead  is  frequently  extracted 
with  the  copper.  The  cost  of  copper  landed  at  Antwerp  varies 
from  £36  to  £40  per  ton. 

In  the  Belgian  Congo,  the  Katanga  Mines,  L'Union  Min- 
iere  du  Haut  Katanga,  were  operated  continuously  during  the 
war,  practically  all  of  the  output  coming  from  the  ores  of  two 
mines,  the  Star  of  the  Kongo  and  the  Kambove.  Wood  is  used 
for  power  purposes  and  coke  for  smelting.  Large  quantities 
of  ore  have  been  found  to  be  of  low  grade  and  a  plant  is  being 
constructed  for  the  treatment  of  these  ores  by  leaching  and 
the  electrical  deposition  of  the  copper;  this  plant  will  have 
a  yearly  capacity  of  50,000  tons  of  copper.  The  program  of 
expansion  and  development  up  to  1921  provides  for  an  expen- 
diture of  $15,000,000.  The  company  employs  450  Europeans 
and  7,000  natives. 

The  Union  Miniere  mine  went  through  the  war  period 
without  the  loss  of  a  single  day's  work  by  labor  strikes.  There 
are  many  other  copper  deposits  not  yet  exploited  and  British 
capital  is  making  rapid  inroads  into  this  region. 

The  Tanganyika  Concessions  Company  produces  three- 
quarters  of  African  copper  and  is  increasing  in  importance. 
The  Katanga  ore  contains  15  per  cent,  copper  and  yields  96 
per  cent,  of  blister  copper.  The  mining  belt  is  at  an  altitude  of 
a  mile,  in  a  healthful  region,  with  good  labor  supply.  A  new 
railroad  from  Katanga  to  Benguella,  soon  to  be  completed, 
will  materially  reduce  the  cost  of  transportation  and  increase 
the  output. 

In  Katanga  mines,  only  bonanza  ores  of  upper 
Cost  of  levels  were  formerly  mined.    Now  low  grades 

Production,  are  being  mined.  Cost  depends  on  character 
of  the  gangue,  whether  or  not  it  is  self-fluxing. 
The  cost  of  production  has  been  cheapened  by  bessemerizing. 
The  cost  of  production  of  ore  in  Australia  (1907)  was  $2.54 
per  ton,  and  in  Arizona  $5.00.  The  cost  of  production  in  Ka- 
tanga is  less  than  in  Japan  but  more  than  in  America.  Trans- 
portation is  a  large  item  of  cost  in  mining  alluvial  deposits  on 
top  of  the  ground.  African  blister  copper  can  be  delivered  in 
London  at  about  the  same  price  as  American. 

Katanga  Copper  was  landed  in  Antwerp: 
1913  at  less  than  $200  per  ton 

1917  "     "       "        250     "     " 

1918  "     "       "        300     "     " 


RAW    PRODUCTS   OP   AFRICA  99 


Katanga  copper,  before  the  war,  was  shipped  to  Germany 
but  since  the  war  began  it  has  been  sent  to  the  United  King- 
dom. 

Prices  for  1917  showed  wide  variations  until  a  fixed 
Prices,     price  of  23^  cents  was  established  by  the  American 
Government,  September  21,  of  that  year. 

Average  Price  Realized. 

1905  15.597  cents  per  Ib. 

1906  19.146       "       "     " 

1907  18.043        "       "     " 

1908  13.348 

1909  13,211  "     " 

1910  12.960  "     " 

1911  12.657        "       "     " 

1912  15.841 

1913  15.222        "       "     " 

1914  13.458       "       "     " 

1915  17.299        "       "     " 

1916  25,710 

The  production  of  copper  by  the  Union  Miniere  "?»  as 
follows: 

1911 997  tons 

1912 2,492 

1913 7,407 

1914 10,722 

1915 14,054 


1916 22,149 


(with  5  smelting  furnaces  in  operation) 


1917 27,463 

1918 22,000  (estimated) 

The  natives  use  copper  to  embellish  their  weapons,  and 
in  the  making  of  toilet  ornaments,  jewelry,  and  for  money. 

Copper  is  quite  generally  diffused  through- 
Production  in  out  Africa.  In  the  Union  of  South  Africa 
Other  Countries,  this  mineral  was  mined  centuries  ago  by 
the  natives  for  ornamental  use.  In  1913  the 
yield  amounted  to  4,420  short  tons,  valued  at  $2,200,000;  and 
in  1917  the  export  of  copper,  copper  ore  and  regulus  was  val- 
ued at  5,500,000.  In  1915,  the  Union  of  South  Africa  had  cop- 
per output  of  28,970  tons,  valued  at  $5,200,000,  and  1916, 
22,842  tons,  valued  at  $5,600,000.  Only  5  00  tons  in  1918. 

In  Angola  there  is  an  abundance  of  copper  and  copper 
mines  have  been  worked  to  small  extent  since  1879.  Copper 
offers  great  possibilities  in  this  region. 

Conglomerates  holding  oxidized  copper  ores  are  found  in 
Angola  near  the  railway  line  12  miles  from  the  Cuanza  River 


100  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


and  at  Senze  do  Itombe  three-fourths  of  a  mile  from  the  rail- 
way running  to  Loanda. 

In  German  South  West  Africa  the  mining  of  copper  is  con- 
stantly increasing  at  Otavi  and  near  Kangrube.  For  1913,  the 
Tmesub  mine  output  of  copper  ore  was  54,100  tons,  and  665 
tons  of  matte. 

A  shipment  of  100  tons  sent  to  Germany  from  the  Otyi- 
zongati  mine  in  German  S.  W.  Africa  yielded  18  per  cent, 
copper. 

Algeria  mines  copper  to  a  considerable  extent.  Owing  to 
the  rapid  growth  of  wine  making  in  Algeria  the  market  for 
copper  sulphate  has  been  constantly  expanding,  and  is  likely 
to  continue. 

In  1913,  Algeria  exported  to  France  1,340,000  pounds  of 
copper,  valued  at  $160,000;  1915,  300  metric  tons  copper, 
valued  at  $80,867 ;  1916, 1,098  metric  tons,  valued  at  $116,572. 

In  Upper  Egypt  copper  mines  are  worked  in  Dongola. 

A  so-called  "mountain  of  copper"  exists  in  the  upper 
Nile  region  of  Egypt  but  the  deposits  are  undeveloped;  near 
Brazzaville  in  French  Congo,  at  Gabon  in  French  Equatorial 
Africa,  in  German  S.  W.  Africa,  Morocco,  Natal  and  Tunis, 
and  in  various  parts  of  Rhodesia  copper  appears. 

In  Tunis  a  small  amount  of  ore  is  smelted  into  high-grade 
matte. 

Before  the  war  copper  was  exported  from  French  Equa- 
torial Africa,  chiefly  to  Belgium.  This  export  in  1913  amount- 
ed to  $125,000. 

In  Rhodesia  experiments  have  been  made  at  the  Falcon 
Mine  in  producing  copper  plate  for  use  in  the  crushers.  These 
plates  could  be  produced  considerably  cheaper  than  the  im- 
ported article  during  the  war. 

The  African  World  of  September  29,  1918,  says  copper 
output  is  greatly  increased  in  Rhodesia;  2,950  tons  in  1918. 

The  production  of  copper  in  Rhodesia  in  1906  was  but  17 
tons  though  many  copper  discoveries  have  been  made  there. 

In  Mozambique  the  copper  output  for  Manica  and  Tete 
for  1917  was  307%  tons,  valued  at  $150,000. 

For  half  a  century  Namaqualand  in  Cape  Colony  has  been 
a  notable  producer — situated  300  miles  north  of  Cape  Town. 
Annual  production  at  Namaqualand,  Cape  Colony,  is  about 
7,000  tons.  The  Ookiep  deposit  here  is  remarkably  rich,  aver- 
aging 21  per  cent.,  but  is  said  to  be  nearly  exhausted. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   o?   AFRICA  '<;/;,         101 


In  Madagascar  the  copper  mines  were  formerly  exploited 
by  the  Government  in  the  district  of  Ambositra.  Beds  of  the 
same  metal  have  been  found  in  the  region  of  Betafo,  in  the 
Vonizongo  and  near  the  lake  of  Kinkony  in  Boeni.  Various 
deposits  have  been  discovered  in  the  northeast,  from  which 
much  is  expected. 

There  is  an  abundance  of  copper  in  Africa.  An 
Outlook.  American  mining  engineer  who  has  traversed  afoot 

the  heart  of  the  continent,  reports  that  there  is 
enough  copper  in  the  Katanga  region  to  supply  the  entire  de- 
mand of  the  world  for  20  years.  On  account  of  the  distance 
from  the  congested  manufacturing  districts  of  the  world  and 
the  cost  of  transportation,  these  deposits  are  not  likely  to  be 
exhausted  until  the  American  and  Japanese  supplies  have  been 
depleted.  The  ratio  of  increase  that  has  arisen  so  rapidly 
during  the  past  ten  years  was  due  to  the  requirements  of 
the  war  and  is  not  likely  to  be  so  marked  in  coming  years. 
The  Katanga  region  is  pre-eminently  the  most  promising, 
and  with  the  new  railroads  coming  in  from  the  West  Coast 
will  result  in  the  largest  increase  from  this  district.  Production 
for  all  Africa  fell  off  during  the  war  but  will  soon  far  surpass 
previous  output. 

TIN 

The  world's  production  of  tin  has  remained  practically 
stationary  of  late  years.  Prior  to  the  war  the  annual  output  was 
about  125,000  tons.  The  figures  for  1917  are: 

Malaya 39,833  Tons 

Bolivia  25,754     " 

Banka   13,246     " 

Siam 9,000     " 

Cornwall   4,100     " 

Billiton   5,000     " 

Nigeria   6,510     " 

China  9,133     " 

Spain  and  Portugal  750     " 

Australia   4,632     " 

South   Africa   1,632     " 

India   1,200     " 


Total 120,790  Tons 

Under  war  pressure  Nigeria,  in  Africa,  rose  to  third  place 
as  a  producer  of  tin,  surpassed  only  by  the  Straits  Settlements 
and  Bolivia,  in  1918.  Nearly  all  tin  produced  is  consumed  in 


102  RAW   Pao DUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


the  manufacture  of  tin  plate.   The  commonest  impurity  in  tin 
is  iron. 

Nigeria  stands  first  in  African  countries  as  the  pro- 
Nigeria,  ducer  of  tin,  and  the  chief  mineral  wealth  of  the 
Colony  is  tin.  The  industry,  like  that  of  iron,  was 
carried  on  by  the  natives  from  time  immemorial,  and  the  pro- 
cess of  smelting  the  tin  was  held  a  secret  in  the  royal  family 
for  many  generations. 

Tin  is  mined  by  the  natives,  who  use  sluices  in  the  streams, 
shifting  the  ore  from  one  calabash  to  another. 

The  tin  was  smelted  into  thin  round  rods  and  used  as  an 
article  of  commerce.  The  English  first  undertook  the  working 
of  tin  mines  in  1902.  This  tin  was  found  to  contain  80  per 
cent,  of  tin  dioxide  equal  to  64  per  cent,  of  metallic  tin.  During 
the  period  immediately  preceding  the  war  nearly  a  hundred 
separate  companies  were  floated  to  exploit  the  tin  mines.  At 
present  there  are  43  companies  listed  on  the  public  exchange. 
There  has  been  a  good  deal  of  the  customary  swindles  of  the 
public  where  wild-cat  mines  have  been  "salted"  and  imaginary 
shafts  have  been  sunk  by  companies  in  London  advertising 
with  metals  borrowed  from  neighboring  mines. 

The  mines  are  located  in  the  western  part  of  Bauchi  prov- 
ince, at  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet,  in  the  midst  of  a  mountain 
range,  which  is  the  water-shed  for  three  large  rivers.  The 
large  rocks  of  granite,  basalt,  and  gneiss  have  been  eroded  by 
centuries  of  rain  and  the  tin  concentrates  washed  into  the  river 
beds.  Alluvial  tin  is  found  during  the  dry  season  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  river  beds. 

The  entire  stanniferous  area  is  honeycombed  with  pits. 
This  Bauchi  province  is  peopled  by  shy  and  timid  pagan 
tribes  who  are  very  backward  in  being  initiated  into  the  art 
of  scientific  mining.  The  scarcity  and  distance  of  the  villages 
and  of  food  supplies  for  man  and  beast  is  one  of  the  many 
drawbacks.  The  railroad  chiefly  used  for  the  transportation 
of  tin  is  one  opened  by  the  Niger  company  between  Loko  and 
the  sea  coast,  a  distance  of  180  miles. 

In  addition  to  old  mines  not  yet  exhausted,  new  dis- 
coveries of  tin  have  been  made,  and  the  area  workable  of  this 
metal  is  known  to  extend  over  9,000  square  miles.  Fifty  tin 
mines  are  in  operation. 

In  the  matter  of  fuel,  oil  is  preferable,  but  owing  to  the 
high  railroad  rates  it  is  expensive.  The  newly  developed  coal 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  103 


fields  of  Udi  supply  fuel  which  is  hardly  profitable  to  use  in 
the  tin  mines.  Timber  is  the  most  practical  fuel  and  exists  in 
large  quantities  in  the  southern  territory. 

The  regulations  for  staking  a  claim  are  as  follows : 

The  Government  requires  a  prospector  to  take  out  a  prospecting  li- 
cense at  £5  per  annum  which  entitles  the  holder  to  prospect  in  any  part 
of  the  Colony  not  already  taken.  As  an  alternative  an  exclusive  license 
to  prospect  within  a  given  area  of  not  more  than  16  square  miles,  the  fee 
being  £5  per  square  mile.  Mining  leases  are  granted  to  the  holders  of 
these  permits.  The  Government  demands  that  some  prospecting  opera- 
tions must  have  been  carried  on  in  some  part  of.  the  area  applied  for,  and 
also  that  the  holder  of  the  right  can  command  sufficient  capital  to  en- 
sure the  effective  working  of  the  same.  The  lease  granted  is  for  21  years 
with  option  of  renewal.  For  alluvial  mining  leases  the  rent  is  5s  per 
acre  per  annum,  over  an  area  of  not  more  than  800  acres.  For  a  lode 
mining  lease  a  rental  of  £4  a  claim  of  80,000  square  feet  is  charged  per 
annum.  A  lease  along  a  stream  is  granted  at  a  rental  of  £1  per  100  yards 
per  annum.  The  maximum  distance  granted  is  one  mile. 

Principal    Companies    Registered    for    Working    in    Northern    Nigeria 

Capital 

Anglo-Continental  Mines  Co.,  Ltd r £200,000 

Benue  (Northern  Nigeria)  Tin  Mines,  Ltd 60,000 

Bisichi  Tin  Company   (Nigeria)   Ltd 200,000 

Champion   (Nigeria)  Tin  Fields,  Ltd 50,000 

Corona  Tin  Fields,  Ltd 9,500 

D.   S.  R.  Syndicate  6,000 

Darymusu   (West  Coast)   Development  Co 25,000 

Fulani   (Nigeria)   Tin  Mining  Co.,  Ltd 80,000 

Gel  Tin,  Lode  &  Alluvial  Co.,  Ltd 100.000 

The  Geri  Tin  Syndicate   (Northern  Nigeria)   Ltd 10,000 

Gurum  River   (Nigeria)    125,000 

Jauro  Syndicate  of  Nigeria,  Ltd 3,500 

Jos  Tin  Area  (Nigeria)  Ltd. 110,000 

Juga  (Nigeria)   Tin  &  Power  Company  275,000 

Kano    (Nigeria)    Tin   Areas,    Ltd 200,000 

Kaffin  Tin  Company,  Ltd 10,000 

The  Lafon  River  Areas,  Ltd 50,000 

Lucky  Chance  Mines,  Ltd 75,000 

Naraguta   (Nigeria)   Mines,  Ltd 175,000 

Naraguta  Extended  (Nigeria)   Tin  Mines,  Ltd 160,000 

Nigerian   Tin   Corporation,   Ltd 100,000 

Northern  Nigerian   (Bauchi)   Tin  Mines,  Ltd 225,000 

Northern  Nigerian   Trust  Co.,   Ltd 100,000 

Northern  Nigerian  Mining  &  Exploration  Co.,  Ltd 10,000 

Rafina    (Nigeria)    Tin   Co.,  Ltd 100,000 

Rayfield  Syndicate,  Ltd 20,000 

Rein  River  (Nigeria)    Tin  Mining  Co 76,000 

Ropp   Tin,   Ltd * 30,000 

South  Bukeru    (Nigeria)   Tin  Co.,  Ltd 50,000 

Sybus   Syndicate   10,000 


104  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


The  Teria  Tin  Mines,  Ltd 40,000 

Tin  Areas  of  Nigeria,  Ltd 60,000 

Tin  Fields  of  Northern  Nigeria,  Ltd 100,000 

West  African  Mines,  Ltd 100,200 

Zuma  Tin  Areas  (Nigeria)  Ltd 60,000 

— (From  Tin  Deposits  of  the  World  by  Sydney  Fawns) 
1913,  Nigeria  exported  tin  ore  to  the  value  of  $2,763,125. 
1914         "  "          "      "    "     "       "      "     3,439  492. 

1915^       "  "    6,535  tons  of  tin  ore,  valued  'at  $3,520,454 

1916,  "  "    7,054    "     "    "     "          "      "      4,100,000 

1917,  "  "    9,966    "     "    "     " 

The  Union  of  South  Africa  ranks  next  to  Ni- 
Union  of  geria  in  the  output  of  tin,  especially  in  the 

South  Africa.  Transvaal  which,  since  1907,  has  become  a 
considerable  factor  in  the  world's  tin  product. 
The  tin  in  the  Transvaal  is  mined  from  veins  between  red  gran- 
ite and  sandstone,  and  no  alluvial  deposits  have  been  found. 
There  are  four  producing  mines  in  operation,  with  ten  stamps, 
with  an  average  monthly  output  of  about  $145,000.  The  out- 
put in  1910  was  estimated  at  $3,455,000.  According  to  the 
Dominions  Royal  Commission,  1918,  "The  tin  area  in  the 
Transvaal  has  been  hardly  more  than  scratched.  There  is 
ample  room  for  large  and  profitable  developments." 

Alluvial  tin  has  been  found  in  Cape  Colony  and  Swazi- 
land. At  Kuils  River,  16  miles  from  Cape  Town,  is  the  prop- 
erty of  the  Alluvial  Tin  Fields  of  Africa  which  has  improve- 
ments in  prospect  and  which  estimates  that  the  profit  in  sight  is 
$.1,000,000. 

A  tin  mine  is  located  in  Stellenbosch  district  in  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  operated  by  hydraulic  plant. 

Union  South  Africa  Exported  in  1917: 

Tin  ore  and  concentrates $1,388,437 

To  Straits  Settlement  1,362,114 

To  United  Kingdom  13,845 

1913,  South  Africa  had  an  output  of  tin  amounting  to 

3,260  short  tons,  valued  at  $1,700,000 ;  1915,  3,441  tons  valued 

$2,500,000;   1916,   2,557  tons,   valued   at   $1,162,558;    1917, 

2,690  tons,  valued  at  $1,388,740. 

Much  of  the  tin  exported  from  South  Africa  is  destined 

for  the  United  States.  It  is  first  sent  to  Singapore  to  be  smelted. 
Tin  is  found  in  the  Katanga  zone,  extending  100 

Congo,    miles  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Lualaba  river.   It 
is  estimated  that  the  amount  of  this  tin  is  20,000 

tons.     In  1906  the  export  of  tin  from  Katanga  amounted  to 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  105 


5%  tons,  and  in  1915,  to  8  tons.  The  tin  veins  are  composed 
of  quartz  and  cassiterite.  Tin  is  also  found  at  Kasai  and  Thim- 
biri.  Alluvial  deposits  of  tin  exist  also  in  the  Tanganyika 
Concessions,  the  most  important  being  the  Busanga  Tin  Mine, 
but  the  sleeping  sickness  has  so  far  prevented  the  full  investi- 
gation of  these  discoveries.  Tin  is  also  found  on  Busanga  Ridge 
in  lodes  and  quartz  reefs.  This  mine  is  well  situated  as  to  water 
privileges. 

The  Union  Miniere  has  an  alluvial  tin  area  at  Bukama, 
the  head  of  the  railway  under  construction  from  Kambove. 
A  plant  for  extracting,  condensing  and  smelting  the  ore  is  al- 
ready on  the  spot.  The  tin  mine  at  Muika  ceased  operation 
during  the  war.  Tin  exists  at  Kiambi,  which  gives  fair  promise 
of  being  of  considerable  value.  The  proximity  of  these  areas  to 
the  river  Lualaba  offers  reasonable  means  of  transport. 

In  German  Southwest  Africa  a  new  tin  district  has  been 
discovered  between  Swakopmund  and  Windhoek,  94  miles 
from  the  coast. 

In  1913,  German  Southwest  Africa  exported  tin  to  the 
value  of  $170,000. 

The  cost  of  production  of  tin  from  alluvial  de- 
Cost  of  posits  is  much  less  than  from  other  kinds  as  no 
Production,     machinery  is  necessary.    Expenses  attached  to 
Nigeria  tin  properties  were  as  follows  (1914)  : 

Cost  of  washing  tin,  six  pence  per  yard  by  hand  sluicing. 

Transport,  at  most,  £25  per  ton.  Smelting  and  incidental 
expenses  £9  per  ton.  Government  duty  5  per  cent,  on  output. 

With  a  hydraulic  plant  washing  expenses  will  be  reduced 
to  less  than  one  penny  per  yard;  completion  of  the  railway 
will  reduce  freightage  from  the  mine  to  England  to  less  than 
£20  per  ton. 

By  these  figures  an  average  property  can  produce  tin  in 
Nigeria  and  deliver  it  in  London  at  a  maximum  cost  of  £50 
per  ton,  which  leaves  scope  for  handsome  profits. 

The  financial  success  of  all  alluvial  tin  fields  depends 
mainly  on  the  values  of  the  tin  alluvium,  the  cost  of  extraction, 
and  the  price  of  the  pure  metal. 

In  1916  the  working  cost  in  Nigeria  was  about  $50  per 
ton.  Twenty  thousand  natives  were  employed  in  1916.  The 
average  profits  in  1918  were  8  per  cent. 


106  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


Average  Tin  Prices  New  York 

1910 34  cents  per  Ib. 

1911  42     " 

1912  46     " 

1913 44     " 

1914 35     " 

1915 38     " 

1916 .43     " 

1917 61     " 

1918 : 65     "          "    " 

$1,700  per  ton  for  Nigerian  tin  in  June,  1918,  was  a  rec- 
ord price. 

The  statement  has  been  made  that  Northern  Ni- 

Outlook.  geria  is  the  "richest  tin  field  in  the  world,"  but  this 
is  evidently  the  exaggeration  of  an  exuberant 
amateur.  Alluvial  tin  mines  are  usually  short-lived,  but  there 
appears  to  be  sufficient  alluvial  ground  to  employ  the  energies 
of  eighty  companies  for  the  next  ten  years.  Experts  contend 
that  lode  formations  exist  in  Nigeria. 

The  future  of  the  tin  industry  seems  favorable  in  Nigeria, 
Congo  and  South  Africa.  The  water  question  is  of  first  import- 
ance in  tin  mining  and  has  not  always  been  satisfactory.  La- 
borers are  abundant  though  unskilled.  Many  of  them  are  cat- 
tle herders  and  cannot  be  depended  on  for  permanent  employ- 
ment. But  there  are  17,000,000  natives  to  draw  from  in  Ni- 
geria. 

IRON 

Iron  comprises  95  per  cent,  of  the  world's  production  of 
metal.  It  is  the  most  useful  of  all  and  occurs  throughout  the 
world.  The  total  production  for  1918  was  80,000,000  tons; 
for  1916,  72,000,000  tons.  In  1890  the  production  was  27,000,- 
000  tons.  The  United  States  produces  as  much  pig  iron  as  all 
the  rest  of  the  world. 

Countries  producing  iron  ore  in  order  of  importance  are 
the  United  States,  Germany,  France,  Great  Britain,  Spain, 
Russia,  Sweden,  Luxembourg,  Austria-Hungary,  Cuba,  New- 
foundland, Algeria. 

Africa  produces  about  2,000,000  tons  of  iron  per  year. 
Algeria  is  the  principal  country,  yielding  marketable  iron; 
850,000  tons  in  1918. 

The  iron  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  the  following  ores: 
hematite,  a  red  oxide,  which  supplies  more  than  half  of  the 
world's  supply;  limonite,  a  brown  ore;  magnetite,  the  mag- 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  107 


netic  ore ;  and  siderite,  the  carbonate.  Wrought  iron  is  the 
purest  form  of  the  metal.  Steel  contains  a  portion  of  carbon, 
but  not  so  much  as  cast  iron.  Iron  pyrites,  or  "fool's  gold,"  is 
not  useful  as  a  commercial  ore,  on  account  of  the  sulphur 
which  it  contains. 

Iron  ores  found  in  Africa  are  principally  hematite,  Al- 
geria being  the  main  source.  The  meteorites,  coming  from 
super-terrestrial  sources,  found  in  Africa  contain  a  great  per- 
centage of  magnetic  iron. 

From  iron  ore  are  manufactured  cast  iron,  wrought 
Uses  of  iron  and  steel.  Silicon,  carbon,  chromium,  nickel, 
Iron  Ore.  manganese,  tungsten,  sulphur  and  phosphorus  are 
added  to  iron  ore  in  small  quantities,  never  over 
5  per  cent.,  to  give  the  iron  hardness,  elasticity,  durability,  den- 
sity, porosity,  malleability,  fusibility  and  resistance  to  corro- 
sion. 

Prices  of  Mesabi  ore  were  $2.50  per  ton  for  Bessemer  and 
$1.75  for  non-Bessemer  at  Lake  Erie  docks  in  1894.  Prices  rose 
irregularly  to  $3.50  and  $4  per  ton  up  to  1903. 

Bessemer      Non-Bessemer 

1910  $4.75  $4.00 

1913  4.15  3.40 

1917  5.70  5.05 

The  latter  price  was  fixed  by  the  Government  for  1918. 

Iron  is  found  in  the  four  corners  of  Africa.  It 
Production  by  is  known  to  have  been  employed  for  thous- 
Countries.  ands  of  years  in  the  arts  in  the  Nile  Valley 

and  is  recorded  as  used  by  the  natives  of  West 
Africa  for  many  centuries.  A  few  years  ago  natives  of  the 
West  Coast  of  Africa  made  iron  crosses  for  money  exchange. 
These  crosses  contained  iron  of  more  value  than  their  equiva- 
lent in  American  coin  and  were  bought  up  freely  for  American 
use. 

The  iron  deposits  of  Algeria  and  Tunis  are  low  phosphor- 
us ores,  valuable  for  European  furnaces.  They  are  high,  grade 
hematite  ores,  lenticular  in  shape,  associated  with  schists  and 
limestone, 

1913  Algeria  had  an  output  of  pig  iron  amounting  to  1,349,- 

000  tons. 

1914  Algeria  produced  1,514,099  long  tons  iron. 
1918  Algeria  produced  850,000  long  tons  iron. 

1913  Tunis  had  an  output  of  pig  iron  amounting  to  584,644 
tons. 

1915  Tunis  exported  312,000  tons  iron  ore,  valued  at  $800,000. 


108  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


J.  E.  Barker,  English  economist,  writing  in  1916,  says: 
"The  metallic  iron  resources  of  Algeria  and  Tunis  amount  to 
75,000,000  tons.  The  reserves  of  the  rest  of  Africa  are  enor- 
mous." 

Morocco  has  iron  mines  that  have  long  been  worked  but 
the  output  is  not  equal  to  other  northern  African  countries. 
The  prospect  is  good  for  a  much  larger  development  in  the  im- 
mediate future.  In  1915  Morocco  produced  186,149  metric 
tons  of  high  grade  hematite  ore. 

Angola  has  deposits  of  iron  that  are  promising,  but  not 
yet  extensively  worked. 

Togoland  is  also  rich  in  iron,  but  little  worked. 

In  Nigeria  the  natives  have  worked  iron  for  centuries  in 
small  amounts. 

In  the  Congo  iron  is  the  most  abundant  of  all  the  ores.  It 
is  found  in  large  amounts  throughout  all  portions  of  the  State 
in  the  form  of  magnetite  and  limonite.  Iron  has  also  been  dis- 
covered in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Kivu,  and  explorers 
mention  it  particularly  as  existing  in  various  forms  and  often 
in  enormous  masses,  in  Katanga.  Ironstone,  from  which  iron 
is  easily  extracted,  is  found  on  the  railway  line  between  Eliza- 
bethville  and  the  southern  border.  Seven  hundred  tons  of  iron 
bars,  rails,  nails  and  450  tons  of  steel  bars,  came  from  the 
smelteries  of  Belgian  Congo  during  the  latter  half  of  1918. 

In  German  East  Africa  iron  has  been  exploited,  but  the 
working  of  the  mines  has  been  set  back  by  the  war. 

In  the  Transvaal  enormous  deposits  of  iron  are  available. 
Magnetic  quartzites  will  aggregate  many  hundreds  of  millions 
of  tons.  Hematite,  in  which  old  workings  are  found,  occur 
extensively  in  Swaziland.  Professor  G.  H.  Stanley,  writing  in 
1917,  states  that  in  Natal  limonite,  hematite  and  magnetite  un- 
derlie a  considerable  extent  of  the  coal  measures  in  beds  from 
1  to  4  feet  thick.  An  order  for  2,000,000  tons  to  be  sent  to 
England  was  cancelled  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  war.  In 
Cape  Colony  large  deposits  occur  in  West  Griqualand  and 
Bechuanaland.  In  1915,  the  Transvaal  exported  487  tons  iron 
pyrites,  valued  at  $4,200. 

Large  deposits  exist  in  various  parts  of  the  Union.  That 
found  in  Natal  is  poor  in  quality.  There  are  numerous  de- 
posits of  various  qualities  in  the  Cape  Province,  a  few  being 
of  the  finest  hematite  with  very  small  percentage  of  impuri- 
ties. Much  of  the  ore  contains  a  high  percentage  of  titanium. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  109 


In  some  cases  coal  and  limestone  are  to  be  found  in  close 
proximity  to  the  iron  ore. 

Deposits  of  both  hematite  and  magnetite  iron  ores  may 
amount  to  millions  of  tons.  One  official  writes  that  "iron  will 
be  more  useful  to  the  country  than  gold."  On  the  Orange 
River  and  Transvaal  the  iron  ore  has  a  low  percentage  of 
phosphorus  and  sulphur.  Mr.  W.  F.  Leathan  on  February  1, 
1918,  writes:  "In  South  Africa  there  are  millions  of  tons  of 
iron  ore  equal  to  the  best  Spanish  ore.  A  small  blast  furnace 
near  Maritzburg  is  the  only  Blast  furnace  so  far  as  I  know  in 
the  whole  of  South  Africa  for  dealing  with  native  ores." 

Prof.  G.  H.  Stanley  of  South  African  School  of  Mines, 
says :  "Iron  ore,  fuel  and  flux  of  satisfactory  quality  exist  in 
the  Union  as  do  other  raw  materials  required  for  manufact- 
ure of  iron  and  steel.  The  present  position  of  the  South  Afri- 
can steel  industry  is  confined  to  the  production  of  steel  from 
scrap  metal." 

The  Veereniging  Steel  and  Iron  Works  employ  250  men 
who  produce  bars,  fencing  standards  and  light  rails,  and  have 
an  output  of  10,000  tons  per  annum. 

A  smeltery  has  recently  been  established  at  Pretoria,  and 
the  estimated  cost  of  producing  a  ton  of  pig  iron  in  1917  was 
$20. 

A  polytechnic  school  of  engineering  is  being  erected  in 
Capetown. 

Northern  Africa  iron  mines  will  produce  much  iron 
Outlook,     for  reconstructing  Europe.   Africa's  percentage  of 
total  world  production  will  undoubtedly  increase 
gradually. 

MANGANESE 

Manganese  is  a  metal  generally  found  associated  with  the 
carbonates  and  silicates  of  iron.  It  has  also  been  recognized  in 
the  atmosphere  of  the  sun,  in  sea  water  and  in  mineral  waters. 
It  precipitates  many  metals  from  salt  solutions.  To  be  saleable 
the  ore  must  contain  35  per  cent,  or  more  manganese  and  for 
ferro-manganese  40  per  cent. 

Principal  sources  of  supply  are  Brazil,  Russia,  Cuba,  In- 
dia and  the  United  States.  It  is  also  produced  in  Central  Am- 
erica, Japan  and  Philippines. 

Africa  offers  good  prospects  for  the  discovery  of  deposits 
of  manganese  which  may  contribute  largely  to  the  world's 
supply.  The  moist  tropical  climate  favors  rapid  rock  decay 


110  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


and  surface  concentration  of  manganese  oxides.  New  deposits 
are  likely  to  be  uncovered.  Tunis  has  deposits  said  to  contain 
4,000,000  tons  of  manganiferous  iron  ore.  The  production  of 
Tunis  in  1917  was  5,800  tons. 

On  the  Gold  Coast  there  is  a  manganese  deposit  operated 
by  a  British  company  at  Dagwin.  From  one  of  these  deposits 
28,465  tons,  valued  at  $52,000,  were  shipped  to  England  in 
1917.  This  deposit  was  first  discovered  in  1914 ;  the  ore  assays 
52  per  cent,  manganese. 

Deposits  of  manganese  occur  in  South  Africa — one  depos- 
it is  said  to  be  able  to  furnish  fifty  thousand  tons  of  ore  assay- 
ing from  twenty  to  fifty  per  cent,  manganese  dioxide. 

Thirty  miles  east  and  west  of  Capetown  are  deposits  of 
manganese,  one  of  which  is  estimated  to  contain  15,000  tons; 
124  tons  taken  out,  1918. 

In  British  East  Africa  manganese  is  found  in  the  sand- 
stone near  the  coast. 

Egypt  has  large  deposits  of  iron  manganese  ore,  but  the 
per  centum  of  managnese  is  small,  being  30  to  40.  It  is  almost 
free  of  silica. 

A  deposit  of  manganese  has  been  uncovered  at  Lulua  on 
the  Congo, 

A  small  amount  has  been  taken  out  in  the  Katanga  region. 
Manganese  goes  into  the  manufacture  of  ferro-man- 
Uses.     ganese  which  is  employed  in  the  steel  industry.    Steel 
alloy  containing  manganese  is  particularly  important 
in  the  manufacture  of  armor  plate  and  munitions.  Managnese 
is  also  in  demand  by  manufacturers  of  glass,  electric  dry  bat- 
teries, paints,  pottery,  tile  and  brick,  these  uses  requiring,  as  a 
rule,  a  much  higher  grade  of  ore  than  does  the  steel  industry. 
Also  used  as  alloy  in  bronze.  Manganese  forms  several  oxides. 
The  price  of  high  grade  ore  reached  $1  per  unit  in 
Prices.     1917;  in  1916  it  was  45  to  65  cents  and  before  the 
war  23  to  30  cents.   The  average  value  of  manganese 
ores  up  to  January,  1916,  was  approximately  from  $10  to  $20 
per  ton,  but  curtailment  of  f erro-manganese  imports  from  Eng- 
land led  to  a  rapid  rise,  and  in  October,  1917,  New  York  quo- 
tation was  $1  per  unit  for  48-cent  grade  with  the  chemical 
ore  at  from  5  to  7  cents  a  pound  according  to  grade. 

IManganese  is  coming  into  greater  demand  and  the  de- 
posits, particularly  of  West  Africa,  will  likely  be  actively  ex- 
ploited. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  111 


CHROMIUM 

Chromium  is  a  member  of  the  natural  family  of  elements 
containing  molybdenum,  tungsten  and  uranium.  The  element 
occurs  chiefly  as  chrome-ironstone. 

Chromic  ore  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  ferrochrome 
Uses,  and  steel  for  high-speed  tools,  armor  plate  and  pro- 
jectiles, bichromates  of  soda  and  potash,  chromic  acid, 
chrome  alum  and  refractory  brick.  The  major  consumption  of 
chromium  is  for  use  as  a  refractory  lining  in  furnaces  for 
smelting  copper  and  steel. 

The  principal  supplies  of  chromium  come  from  New  Cale- 
donia and  Rhodesia.  The  chief  producing  belts  in  America  are 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  Ranges,  in  California  and  Oregon. 
World's  Production  of  Chromic  Iron  Ore  in  Long  Tons,  1914 

United  States  591 

Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  533 

Canada    123 

Greece   7,059 

India   5,986 

Japan  2,108 

New  Caledonia  82,806 

Rhodesia 49,009 

In  1918  Rhodesia  led  the  world. 

The  sources  of  supply  of  chromium  have  changed  rapidly. 
Before  1913  Japan  and  Russia  produced  considerable  amounts. 
Of  the  1916  imports  into  the  United  States,  Rhodesia  supplied 
61,850  tons. 

Chromic  ore  is  sold  on  the  basis  of  40  per  cent,  chromic 
acid  and  8  per  cent,  silica,  bringing  in  1916  from  30  to  50  cents 
per  unit  or  $12  to  $20  per  ton.  In  October,  1917,  prices  stood 
at  60  to  75  cents  for  40  per  cent,  ore  and  over,  equal  to  $24  and 
$30  per  ton.  The  California  output  was  13  times  greater  than 
in  1915.  In  1913  the  price  for  chrome  was  $11  per  ton. 

Rhodesia,  according  to  the  Rhodesian  Herald,  Aug.  31, 
1918,  contains  the  largest  deposit  of  high  grade  chrome  in  the 
world.  This  deposit,  discovered  in  1906,  has  been  systematic- 
ally developed  and  2,000,000  tons  of  exceptionally  fine  qual- 
ity of  chrome  are  now  exposed.  The  average  per  cent,  of 
chrome  assayed  from  the  ore  is  53.  The  area  of  the  deposit 
covers  4,500  acres.  Engineers  estimate  that  the  ore  can  be 
delivered  at  Beira  at  less  than  $8.50  per  ton.  Water-falls  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  supply  ample  power  for  working 
purposes. 


112  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


The  ore  is  shipped  from  Lorenco  Marques  and  Beira  to  the 
United  States  as  ballast  in  ships  which  carry  agricultural  ma- 
chinery to  the  African  colonies.  Most  of  the  last  two  years' 
exports  from  Rhodesia  went  to  the  United  States.  France,  in 
which  f  erro-chrome  industry  is  important,  took  a  large  amount, 
and  a  small  portion  went  to  Holland  and  England. 

Southern  Rhodesia  first  exported  chrome  iron  in  1906. 
By  1913  the  export  was  63,383  tons;  in  1914,  48,207  tons; 
1915,  60,581  tons,  valued  at  $800,000;  1916,  88,871  tons; 
1917,  72,962  tons,  valued  at  $1,500,000. 

During  1917  Rhodesia  supplied  half  the  world's  output 
of  chrome.  This  is  likely  to  increase  as  other  sources  of  sup- 
ply are  diminishing.  The  principal  deposit  is  at  Selukwe. 

The  remarkable  output  of  chrome  in  Rhodesia  dur- 
Outlook.     ing  the  war  will  probably  continue,  as  the  world 
calls  for  an  increased  amount  of  chrome  for  man- 
ufacturing steel  and  ships  returning  from  Africa  need  bulky 
cargo  for  ballast. 

SILVER 

Silver  is  a  metallic  chemical  element  of  a  pure  white  color 
with  a  perfect  metallic  luster.  It  is  widely  diffused  in  nature, 
occurring  in  minute  amounts  in  sea  water,  in  the  mineral  king- 
dom as  free  metal,  as  an  amalgam  with  mercury  and  as  alloys 
with  gold,  platinum,  copper  and  other  metals.  It  is  the  most 
malleable  and  ductile  of  all  metals  except  gold,  harder  than 
gold,  but  not  so  hard  as  copper. 

Silver  is  found  in  United  States,  Mexico,  Canada,  Peru, 
Chile,  Bolivia,  Germany,  Spain  and  Australia. 

The  silver  production  of  the  world  in  1910  was  221,715,- 
763  ounces;  in  1916,  175,933,000,  valued  at  $119,727,000  and 
$115,763,914,  respectively.  During  1915  Africa  produced  1,- 
160,000  ounces  of  silver.  The  total  product  is  valued  less  than 
$1,000,000.  There  are  no  direct  silver  mines  in  Africa.  It  is 
a  by-product  of  the  lead,  zinc,  gold,  copper  and  cobalt  mines. 
The  Transvaal  produces  the  largest  amount  of 
Where  Found,  silver  in  Africa ;  it  is  found  in  conjunction  with 
lead  and  cobalt.  During  1913,  Transvaal  pro- 
duced 952,521  ounces;  1914,  890,562  ounces;  1915,  965,914 
ounces. 

In  the  Congo  native  silver  is  found  with  calcite  at  Min- 
douli.  Also  found  on  the  Mayumbe  and  along  Lualaba.  Cop- 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  113 


per  ore  of  Kambove  has  an  average  tenor  of  42  grams  of  silver 
per  ton. 

In  Algeria  and  Tunis  silver  is  associated  with  galena  de- 
posits. 

Silver  has  attracted  prospectors  in  German  Southwest 
Africa  but  has  never  been  mined  in  payable  quantity. 

Rhodesia  is  increasing  her  output  of  silver  from  142,390 
ounces  in  1913  to  200,676  ounces  in  1916.  The  value  of  the 
export  of  silver  from  Southern  Rhodesia  (1915)  was  $926,165, 
or  4  per  cent,  of  total  exports. 

The  production  of  silver  in  Egypt  rose  from  23,952  ounces 
(1911)  to  237,074  in  1915. 

Production  in  1918:  Congo,  10,520  oz.;  Egypt,  800  oz.; 
Rhodesia,  175,700  oz.;  Union  of  South  Africa,  938,146  oz.; 
Madagascar,  20,000  oz.;  Mozambique,  1,200  oz. 

Africa  produces  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  world's 
Outlook,  silver  and  is  not  likely  to  increase  that  proportion 
soon.  Belgian  Congo  shows  the  most  growth,  but 
the  Transvaal  will  remain  the  largest  producer.  There  is  a 
demand  for  silver  coins  in  British  East  and  West  African  col- 
onies, in  Egypt  and  regions  recently  liberated  from  Turkish 
rule.  Great  Britain  has  minted  a  new  silver  currency  for 
West  African  trade. 

ZINC 

Zinc,  known  commercially  as  spelter,  is  obtained  mainly 
from  blende  (natural  sulphide)  and  calamine  (natural  car- 
bonate). A  less  important  source  is  silicate.  Calamine  was 
formerly  the  most  important  ore  of  zinc  but  at  present 
blende  is  the  chief  source  of  the  metal,  usually  containing  30 
to  35  per  cent,  zinc,  the  balance  consisting  of  iron  sulphide 
and  other  impurities.  The  complex  mixture  of  lead  and  zinc 
carbonates  and  silicate  makes  a  difficult  problem  for  the  metal- 
lurgist. 

About  60  per  cent,  of  the  zinc  consumed  is  used  in  the 
Uses,  galvanized  iron  industry;  the  manufacture  of  brass 

about  20  to  25  per  cent.  Rolled  zinc  sheets  are  used  for 
roofing,  screens,  seives  and  in  photographic  processes;  rolled 
zinc  plates  are  used  in  marine  boilers  to  prevent  corrosion; 
zinc  rods  for  electric  batteries.  The  most  important  zinc  alloys 
in  addition  to  brass  and  bronze  are  the  various  anti-friction 
metals  and  aluminum  zinc,  used  for  light  castings  in  the  motor 
industry. 


114  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


Zinc  production  fell  off  during  the  war  though  much  in 
demand  for  making  brass. 

In  the  production  of  zinc  the  United  States  is  first,  sup- 
plying 35  per  cent.;  Germany  second,  25  per  cent.;  Belgium 
third,  15  per  cent.  The  world  production  for  1913  was  1,200,- 
000  short  tons,  of  which  the  United  States  supplied  350,000 
tons;  Algeria  and  Tunis  110,000  tons. 

Algeria. — Zinc  ores,  including  blende,  are  worked  in  the 
department  of  Constantine.  Ore  has  been  also  mined  exten- 
sively near  the  Atlas  Mountains.  The  ore,  which  consists  of 
carbonates  above  water-level  and  zinc  blende  below  it,  occurs 
in  veins  in  Cretaceous  marls,  schists,  and  limestones.  Both 
lead  and  zinc  ores  occur  in  the  Oued  Mozib  Mine  in  the  de- 
partment of  Oran.  Deposits  of  zinc  ore  and  galena  occur  in  the 
districts  of  Souk-Ahras  and  Tebessa. 

Algeria  annually  mines  about  85,000  tons  of  zinc,  and 
Tunis  30,000  tons.  These  deposits  are  operated  by  Belgian 
and  French  companies.  The  ore  is  carbonate  and  silicate,  and 
the  mines  are  not  deep  enough  to  reach  the  sulphide  ores. 

In  1913  Algeria  produced  82,256  tons  of  zinc,  of  which 
60,000  tons  were  calamine  and  12,000  blende,  to  the  value  of 
$2,534,862. 

In  1914  Algeria  exported  zinc  to  the  value  of  $1,399,636. 

In  1915  Algeria  exported  16,796  metric  tons  zinc,  valued 
at  $810,407. 

In  1916  Algeria  exported  28,973  metric  tons  zinc,  valued 
at  $1,398,092. 

Tunis. — Zinc  ore  has  been  obtained  from  a  number  of 
localities  in  Tunis  north  of  the  Sidi-Ahmet  Mountains,  where 
the  annual  output  amounts  to  about  4,000  tons  of  ore.  De- 
posits of  considerable  size  occur  at  Fedj-el-Adoum,  about  12 
miles  southwest  of  Tebursuk,  in  the  highest  part  of  the  Joua- 
ouda  Mountains. 

At  Zaghouan,  35  miles  south  of  Tunis,  there  are  deposits 
of  zinc  ore,  having  an  annual  output  of  calcined  ore  of  about 
5,000  tons.  Zinc  ore  also  occurs  at  El-Akhouat,  about  20 
miles  southwest  of  Tebursuk. 

Tunis  in  1913  produced  27,120  tons,  of  which  20,000  tons 
were  calamine  and  3,000  tons  were  blende.  These  mines  are 
operated  by  French  and  Belgian  companies  who  pay  5  per 
eent.  royalty  of  net  proceeds  to  the  Government  of  Tunis. 

Other  Countries,— Zinc  is  used  in  the  cyanide  process  for 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  115 


extracting  gold  from  the  tailings,  and  will  probably  be  more 
extensively  worked  in  the  Waterberg  districts  of  the  Trans- 
vaal. In  1915  the  Union  of  South  Africa  produced  352  tons 
of  zinc.  The  mineral  report  of  1917  for  South  Africa  states 
that  the  zinc  output  increased  in  value  $75,000. 

An  ancient  zinc  deposit  is  situated  near  the  Red  Sea,  at 
Gebel  Rosas  in  Egypt  and  continues  to  yield  a  small  quantity 
annually.  Egypt  produced  3,160  tons  in  1913. 

In  1915  French  Africa  exported  2,464  tons  of  zinc  ore  to 
the  United  States. 

Zinc  is  found  at  Ituri  in  the  Congo. 

A  considerable  deposit  of  oxidized  zinc  ore  at  Broken 
Hill  in  Rhodesia  consists  of  two  beds.  One  body  of  ore  is  esti- 
mated at  250,000  long  tons,  averaging  26  per  cent,  lead  and 
22%  per  cent.  zinc.  The  other  deposit  of  300,000  tons  aver- 
ages 32  per  cent,  zinc  with  very  little  lead.  As  high  as  54  per 
cent  of  zinc  metal  has  been  taken  from  this  mine.  Zinc  smelters 
are  being  erected  in  Rhodesia. 

Zinc  reached  the  maximum  price  of  25c  in  1917,  and 
Prices,     within  a  year  had  fallen  to  6c.  The  current  price  for 
July,  1919,  is  8c  per  pound. 

There  is  plenty  of  zinc  in  Africa  which  will  be 
Outlook,     worked  when  other  more  profitable  mineral  de- 
posits fail.  Until  the  great  War  there  were  no  smelt- 
ers for  zinc  in  Africa.    The  first  was  established  in  Algeria. 

LEAD 

Lead  (Pb)  is  one  of  the  earliest  known  metals,  worked  by 
the  Egyptians  3000  B.  C.  It  is  the  heaviest  of  the  base  metals, 
usually  found  in  company  with  zinc  and  often  with  silver. 
Metal  lead  is  obtained  by  reduction  of  lead  compounds. 

The  world's  output  of  lead  is  in  the  vicinity  of  1,200,000 
metric  tons  annually. 

Lead  in  payable  quantities  is  taken  from  all  sections  oi 
Africa,  though  in  small  amounts.  It  exists  in  Kwilu,  Mayum- 
be  and  Mia  in  the  Lower  Congo.  In  1918  Belgian  Congo  ex- 
ported 35  tons  of  lead. 

In  Nigeria  the  natives  have  worked  lead  for  centuries. 

German  East  Africa  has  lead  mines  but  not  extensively 
exploited. 

In  1913  German  West  Africa  exported  lead  to  the  value 
of  $86,000. 


116  RAW  PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


Algeria  exported  in  1915,  15,046  metric  tons,  valued  at 
$494,659;  1916,  23,731  metric  tons,  valued  at  $801,529. 

During  1918,  Egypt  exported  2,493  tons  of  lead. 

In  1915  Tunis  exported  lead  ore,  34,268,300  pounds,  val- 
ued at  $512,000. 

In  Mozambique,  the  Anglo-Portuguese  East  African  Con- 
cession, Ltd.,  of  London,  with  capital  of  $250,000,  has  obtained 
rights  for  exploitation  of  lead. 

The  Union  of  South  Africa  produced  270  tons  in  1917. 
Galena  yielding  80  per  cent,  pure  lead  is  found  near  Marico 
in  the  Transvaal. 

The  Broken  Hill  mine,  Rhodesia,  in  1908  produced  1,000 
tons  of  lead,  which  was  reduced  in  1915  to  28  tons  and  rose  to 
10,000  tons  in  1918.  New  smelteries  installed  should  increase 
output  to  18,000  tons  per  annum. 

Northern  Rhodesia  produced  4,100  tons  of  lead  ore  in 
1917.  Large  reduction  and  concentrating  plants  are  operated 
by  the  Rhodesian  Zinc  &  Lead  Syndicate. 

Lead  is  found  nearer  than  Africa  to  the  great  com- 
Outlook.  mercial  centers,  and  not  being  a  bulky  commodity 
for  freight  ballast,  other  mines  are  more  profitably 
worked.  The  United  States,  Spain,  Germany,  Australasia,  are 
leading  sources  of  lead  supply.  Africa  contributes  3  to  4  per 
cent,  of  world's  total  product. 

COAL 

Coal  is  the  most  essential  fuel  for  developing  power  for 
industrial  purposes  and  determines  centers  of  humanity. 
Where  coal  deposits  exist  human  population  is  densest.  The 
science  of  economics  demonstrates  that  it  is  cheaper  to  bring 
industries  to  the  coal  mines  than  coal  to  the  industries.  Hence 
manufacturers  of  iron,  wool  and  cotton  are  often  found  near 
coal  mines. 

The  annual  world  consumption  of  coal  runs  into  many 
million  tons,  the  main  supply  coming  from  the  United  States. 
According  to  J.  E.  Barker  (1916),  coal  resources  of  Africa 
are: 

Transvaal   36,000,000,000  Tons 

Rest  of  South  Africa  20,200,000,000     " 

Belgian  Congo  990,000,000     " 

Rhodesia    569,000,000     " 

Nigeria   80,000,000     " 


Total  .... 57,839,000,000  Tons 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  117 


It  is  estimated  that  in  South  Africa  there  is  a  reserve  of 
10,000,000  tons  of  hard  coal.  Anthracite  coal  is  not  very  val- 
uable, owing  to  the  large  percentage  of  ash. 

Including  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Natal,  the  Orange  Free 
State,  and  the  Transvaal,  South  Africa  is  estimated  to  have 
produced  7,000,000  tons  of  coal  in  1917. 

The  Transvaal  coal  mining  industry  is  characterized  by 
two  prominent  features — the  enormous  extent  of  coal  bearing 
ground,  and  the  excessive  competition  among  producers,  with 
a  consequent  reduction  of  prices  to  a  level  rarely  leaving  a 
margin  for  fair  return  on  capital  invested.  Extensive  coal 
seams  in  easy  access  of  the  Rand  gold  field  is  a  conspicuous 
natural  blessing. 

1913,  The  Union  of  South  Africa  exported  bunker  coal  valued 
at  $5,200,000. 

1914,  The  Union  of  South  Africa  exported  bunker  coal  valued 
at  $5,000,000. 

1915,  The  Union  of  South  Africa  exported  bunker  coal  valued 

at  $4,550,000. 

1916,  The  Union  of  South  Africa  exported  565,663  short  tons 
of  coal,  valued  at  $1,568,687,  and  bunker  coal  valued  at 
$9,944,000. 

1917,  The  Union  of  South  Africa  exported  539,626  short  tons 
coal  valued  at  $1,569,054. 

The  value  of  coal  in  South  Africa  is  enhanced  by  its  prox- 
imity to  the  Rand  Gold  mines,  for  which  it  supplies  power  in 
the  absence  of  local  water  falls.  The  reserves  of  the  Union  of 
South  Africa  are  given  as  55,200,000,000  tons,  according  to 
the  South  African  Year  Book  of  1919. 

The  exports  of  coal  from  South  Africa  go  to  Ceylon,  In- 
dia, and  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean;  also  to  South  Am- 
erica, from  which  cargoes  of  nitrate  of  soda  are  brought  back. 
The  ports  of  shipment  are  Lorenco  Marques  and  Durban. 

Of  the  Union  of  South  Africa  the  great  Karoo  system  con- 
tains coal  deposits  in  a  long  vein  averaging  six  feet  in  width. 
Twenty  per  cent,  of  this  is  A-l  coal. 

From  the  bluff  at  Durban  a  loading  plant  has  just  been 
installed,  capable  of  loading  steamers  at  the  rate  of  600  tons 
of  coal  per  hour.  In  1915  Durban  exported  coal  and  coke  to 
the  value  of  $3,709,397,  or  20  per  cent. 

The  price  of  bunker  coal  at  Durban  rose  from  16 

Prices,     shillings  in  1915  to  31  shillings  in  1918.    At  the  pit's 

mouth,  in  the  Transvaal,  the  price  of  coal  was  4s 


118  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


4i/2d  in  1913,  and  4s  9  l/3d  in  1917  for  one  ton  of  2,000 
pounds. 

British  East  Africa  has  no  coal  deposits  important  enough 
to  be  worked,  though  fragments  of  coal  are  found  in  the  bed 
of  the  streams  around  Mt.  Elgon  in  Uganda. 

In  the  Congo  there  are  two  deposits  of  coal,  with  reserves 
estimated  at  1,000,000,000  tons. 

The  coal  fields  of  Rhodesia  are  of  large  extent,  the 
Rhodesia,  producing  colliery — the  Wankie — turns  out 
roughly  100,000  tons  per  annum  for  use  on  the 
railways  and  mines.  It  is  situated  150  miles  north  northwest 
from  Bulawayo  in  the  direction  of  Victoria  Falls.  The  scheme 
which  has  been  proposed  for  the  utilization  of  these  falls  for 
an  electric  power  generating  station  for  the  gold  mines  may 
check  future  expansion  of  the  coal  mines.  It  is  considered  the 
boldest  engineering  project  ever  conceived;  the  distance  from 
the  mines  to  the  Falls  is  600  miles.  The  undertaking  is  pro- 
moted by  the  African  Concession  Syndicate. 

In  Rhodesia  the  bituminous  coal  in  the  vicinity  of  Wankie 
is  estimated  at  750,000,000  tons. 

The  coal  output  from  the  Wankie  Colliery  was,  in  19 15, 
409,763  tons;  in  1916,  490,582  tons;  in  1917,  548,954  tonsl. 
Southern  Rhodesia  exported: 

1914  coal  to  the  value  ol  $150,000 

1915  "      "     "         "     "      130,000 

1916  "      "     "         "     "      175,000 

1917  "      "     "         "     "      200,000 

An  additional  plant  has  lately  been  installed  to  meet  the 
increased  demands  for  coal  and  coke  from  the  copper  mines 
in  the  Belgian  Congo. 

The  output  of  coal  in  Rhodesia: 

1914   was  349,459  tons 
1935      "     409,763     " 

1916  "  491,582  " 

1917  "  548,954  " 

The  average  selling  price  was  8s  6.38d.  In  1917,  78,- 
501  tons  of  coke  were  made  from  Rhodesian  coal  and  small 
amounts  from  other  mines.  Coke  is  also  manufactured  in  the 
Congo. 

Coal  is  to  be  found  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  Con- 
go, but  is  not  as  extensively  worked  as  it  might  be.  Large  coal 
fields  have  been  discovered  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Tanganyika 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  119 


near  the  exit  of  the  Lukuga,  close  to  the  line  of  the  Grand 
Lakes  Railway. 

Bitumen  has  been  discovered  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Stanleyville-Ponthierville  Railway  and  its  exploitation  is  be- 
ing carried  out. 

Much  importance  is  attached  to  the  Udi  coal  fields 
Nigeria,  of  Nigeria,  which  have  opened  up  80,000,000  tons 
of  lignite.  The  product  is  a  dirty  looking  brown 
coal  capable  of  generating  considerable  steam  power  for  en- 
gines. The  potential  revenue  from  these  mines  is  undoubtedly 
large  as  soon  as  adequate  transportation  is  established  and 
modern  mining  methods  installed.  Many  prospecting  licenses 
have  already  been  granted  and  the  question  has  risen  as  to 
whether  the  Government  should  not  control  all  of  these  coal 
fields. 

Udi  coal,  which  is  used  for  bunkering  vessels,  could  be 
purchased  for  $8.50  per  ton  at  Port  Harcourt  in  the  spring  of 
1918.  After  extended  trials  the  steam  value  of  Udi  coal  is 
reported  as  being  from  75  per  cent,  to  95  per  cent,  of  best 
Welch  coal.  The  Udi  fields  are  situated  150  miles  inland  from 
the  Nigerian  coast  and  are  capable  of  100,000  tons  per  annum. 

Egypt  has  no  coal  of  commercial  importance.  There  coal 
and  fuel  are  large  imports. 

There  is  coal  in  German  East  Africa,  but  it  has  not  yet 
been  scientifically  extracted  and  so  the  yield  has  as  yet  not 
been  very  important. 

In  Abyssinia  coal  is  found  near  Addis  Ababa  and  used  for 
fuel. 

Senegal  produces  a  good  deal  of  coal,  which  has  become 
an  important  item  of  commerce.  In  1914  Senegal  exported 
157,839  tons  of  coke,  valued  at  about  $1,105,000. 

Angola  has  valuable  bituminous  coal  fields  and  its  shale 
produces  a  large  percent  of  oil. 

A  local  chemist  distilled  shale  containing  31  per  cent,  of 
crude  oil  and  56  per  cent,  of  coke  oil,  which  is  used  for  ben- 
zine, paraffine,  and  for  illuminating  and  lubricating. 

Between  Algeria  and  Morocco  a  large  deposit  of  coal  is 
reported. 

The  amount  of  coal  available  here  has  not  met 
Mozambique,     requirements  for  some  time,  causing  serious 
complaints  in  shipping  circles.    The  probabil- 
ity that  many  more  steamers  will  desire  to  take  coal  in  Lor- 


120  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


enco  Marques  than  previously  has  helped  to  bring  about  a 
working  arrangement. 

Large  deposits  of  coal  on  the  Zambesi,  20  miles  above 
Tete,  and  at  another  point  220  miles  from  Port  Salisbury,  are 
being  worked  increasingly.  Coal  is  also  found  near  the  Shire 
river,  and  again  to  the  northwest  of  Lake  Nyassa. 

In  Madagascar  a  deposit  of  coal  similar  to  that  of  the 
Transvaal  has  been  opened  up,  and  the  vein  measures  four  or 
five  meters  in  width.  Lignite  and  peat  are  abundant  in  Mada- 
gascar, and  encouraging  indications  of  petroleum  have  been 
uncovered.  The  Service  des  Mines  has  discovered  a  very  im- 
portant deposit  of  hard  coal  similar  to  cannel  in  the  southwest- 
ern part  of  Madagascar. 

In  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  are  several  deposits  of  coal,  the 
Isle  Santo  Vicente  having  four,  all  belonging  to  English  com- 
panies. 

The  Canary  Islands  furnish  a  great  deal  of  coal  to  bunk- 
ers, as  well  as  other  coal,  and  considerable  amounts  of  kero- 
sene. In  1913  these  Islands  exported  bunker  coal  to  the  value 
of  $7,300,000  and  kerosene  to  the  value  of  $182,441 ;  and  in 
1914,  bunker  coal  to  the  value  of  $5,475,000;  and  kerosene  to 
the  value  of  $96,120. 

Coal  is  not  needed  for  warmth  in  the  greater  part  of 
Outlook.  Africa,  but  for  fuel  in  operating  machinery  at  the 
two  ends  of  the  continent.  South  Africa  is  rapidly 
developing  as  a  manufacturing  center,  and  has  immense  coal 
reserves  in  the  Karoo  system.  Coal  is  the  dependence  for  pow- 
er as  oil  supply  is  not  reliable.  Coal  of  all  grades  is  found  in 
Africa.  Madagascar  has  much  hard  coal.  The  climate  is  too 
hot  in  Nigeria  to  expect  as  much  development  as  in  South 
Africa. 

MICA 

Mica  is  a  constituent  of  granite,  gneiss  and  mica-schist, 
and  distinguished  by  its  perfect  cleavage.  It  is  a  silicate  of 
alumina,  with  potash,  magnesia  and  iron  and  more  rarely, 
soda.  The  commercial  variety  is  Muscovite,  a  potash  mica, 
generally  known  as  white  mica. 

It  is  used  largely  as  an  insulating  material  in  electrical 
appliances;  other  important  uses  are  for  glazing  windows  of 
stoves  and  furnaces,  and  for  making  lamp  chimneys  and  the 
diaphragms  of  phonographs.  Ground  mica  is  employed  in  the 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  121 


manufacture  of  certain  paints,  lubricants,  piston  packing  and 
roofing. 

Mica  is  a  very  widely  distributed  mineral.  In- 
Where  Found,  dia,  the  United  States  and  Canada  are,  in  the 

order  named,  the  chief  sources  of  the  world's 
supply.  German  East  Africa  ranks  fourth  for  flake  mica,  sup- 
plying nearly  5  per  cent,  of  world's  output,  1914. 

The  mica  of  former  German  East  Africa  is  a  dark  green  or 
brown  Muscovite,  splitting  easily  into  smooth,  flat  sheets,  and 
very  free  from  foreign  matter.  It  is  often  transparent  in  half- 
inch  thickness.  The  main  source  of  production  is  the  Ulugaru 
mountain  region.  The  deposits,  first  opened  in  1902,  are  of 
the  open  quarry  type. 

The  yield  of  mica  in  the  Ulugaru  mountains  has  increased 
for  many  years;  in  German  East  Africa  the  monthly  output 
before  the  war  had  reached  8,000  kgs.,  valued  at  from  2.69 
to  2.89  marks  per  kilo.  One  hundred  tons  were  exported  an- 
nually before  the  war  and  the  output  had  reached  1,000  tons. 

German  East  Africa  exported  in  1911,  216,712  Ibs.  mica 
valued  at  62,892  marks;  in  1912,  339,084  Ibs.,  valued  at  1,141,- 
599  marks. 

Flakes  of  considerable  size  are  found  in  British  East 
Africa.  On  the  western  side  of  Lake  Tanganyika  in  the  Congo 
there  are  also  deposits.  Small  quantities  are  found  in  the 
Transvaal  in  the  Pietersburg  district.  The  mica  "books"  some- 
times are  found  as  wide  as  five  feet  across  and  and  a  foot 
thick.  They  occur  in  pegmatite  dikes. 

Black  mica  is  found  at  Fatenga  in  French  West  Africa. 

Sheet  Muscovite  is  found  in  the  plateau  of  Madagascar. 
Six  tons  only  were  mined  in  1913. 

Nyassaland  produced  119  short  tons  of  mica  from  1910 
to  1912. 

Mica-bearing  pegmatites  are  found  in  Rhodesia,  former 
German  Southwest  Africa  and  the  Kamerqons. 

Prices  of  Transvaal  mica  in  London,  1917,  were  $1.34  for 
sheets  2x8  inches;  4x7  and  8x8  inches,  $5.00  per  ton. 

Former  German  East  Africa  holds  forth  the  most 
Outlook,  promising  future  for  mica.  Already  it  ranks  third 
in  world  production  of  commercial  Muscovite. 
There  is  much  mica  available  in  Africa,  but  the  supplies  of 
America  and  India  are  in  the  centers  of  dense  population  and 
must  be  exhausted  before  Africa  is  greatly  developed. 


122  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


ASBESTOS 

Asbestos  is  a  fibrous  variety  of  serpentine  (crysolitc).  It 
is  chiefly  valuable  on  account  of  its  incombustibility  and  as  a 
non-conductor  of  heat.  It  is  used  by  being  spun  or  woven,  gen- 
erally with  a  small  amount  of  vegetable  fibre  in  order  to  add 
to  its  strength.  Of  the  world's  production  of  asbestos  in  1912 
88  per  cent,  came  from  Canada;  4  per  cent,  from  Russia;  7 
per  cent,  from  South  Africa.  The  latter  source  of  supply  is 
steadily  rising  in  proportion. 

The  bulk  of  asbestos  is  used  for  insulating  steam- 
Uses,  and  pipes,  boilers,  and  packings  for  internal  corn- 
Substitutes,  bustible  engines ;  also  for  firemen's  uniforms,  for 
fire-proof  purposes  and  as  a  non-conductor  of 
heat  as  well  as  of  cold,  and  also  as  an  acid-proof  material.  It 
is  woven  into  theatre  curtains,  holders  and  mats  for  hot  flat- 
irons  and  for  other  fire  and  heat  proof  fabrics.  It  is  largely 
used  in  building  paper,  in  walls,  roofs  and  floors,  and  as  a  cov- 
ering for  steam  pipes  and  boilers.  It  is  also  used  in  paints  for 
its  protective  qualities. 

"Mineral-wool",  which  is  made  by  melting  slag  and  lime- 
stone together  and  then,  by  means  of  a  steam  blast,  converting 
the  molten  mass  to  a  fine  fibrous  state,  is  a  substitute  for  as- 
bestos ;  but  can  not  be  spun  into  thread.  It  is  used  in  much  the 
same  way  and  for  the  same  purposes  as  true  asbestos — particu- 
larly for  fire-proof  packing  material  in  walls  and  floors,  and 
as  non-conducting  packing  around  boilers  and  steam  pipes, 
also  extensively  used  in  ice-boxes  and  refrigerators. 

The  most  important  African  asbestos  deposits  oc- 
Rhodesian  cur  in  Southern  Rhodesia,  in  the  Victoria  and  Be- 
Deposits.  lingwe  districts,  but  good  deposits  in  other  dis- 
tricts have  been  found  also.  Rhodesian  asbestos 
is  blue  crocidolite  of  excellent  quality  and  has  greatly  replaced 
the  Canadian  supply  in  the  English  markets.  Labor  is  cheap  in 
these  mines  and  the  mining  conditions  generally  good.  The 
fibre  is  often  four  inches  long  and  is  especially  adapted  for 
electric  welding  and  spinning. 

Rhodesia  produced  asbestos  during  five  years,  as  follows : 

1913 290  tons,  valued  at  $  25,000 

1914 487     "  "      "       43,000 

1915 2,010     "  "      "     160,500 

1916 6,157     "  "      "     495,000 

1917 9,562     "  "      "     949,100 

In  the  Transvaal  important  deposits  of  asbestos  have  been 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  123 


worked  since  1906,  in  the  Carolina  district.  It  is  of  high  grade 
and  has  brought  as  much  as  $300  per  ton  in  London.  Fifty 
miles  north  of  Lydenburg  there  is  a  valuable  specimen  known 
as  iron-amphibole,  a  silicate  rich  in  iron.  It  has  been  well  and 
profitably  worked,  but  road  transportation  has  been  a  great 
drawback. 

In  Zululand  crysolite  asbestos  is  worked  at  Middle  Drift 
in  the  Tugela  river,  and  tremolite  asbestos  near  Pomeroy. 

The  first  South  African  field  of  asbestos  to  be  worked  waa 
in  Griqualand  West,  where  blue  asbestos  is  found,  a  sodium- 
iron  silicate  (crocidolite).  This  product  has  been  mined  for  2U 
years.  The  supply  seems  inexhaustible  and  forms  the  largest 
known  asbestos  area.  The  fiber  of  this  variety  is  short,  rarely 
exceeding  two  inches  and  brings  $125  per  ton  in  London.  The 
very  short  fiber  brings  less.  Railroads  through  this  district 
would  greatly  help  the  industry. 

The  Union  of  South  Africa  produced  asbestos  in 

1913  to  the  value  of  $  80,000 

1914  "    "         "        "     102,800 
and  exported  in 

1915 2,083  tons  of  asbestos,  valued  at  $179,000 

1916  4,228     "     "         "  •"       "     415,100 

1917  6,220     "     "  "     436,500 

One-third  of  the  product  is  consumed  by  the  local  textile 

factories. 

The  1916  prices  were  $200  to  $300  per  ton  for  blue 
Prices,  asbestos ;  fibers  of  one-quarter  to  one-half  an  inch  in 

length  in  1916  brought  $75  per  ton,  and  for  fibers 
one-half  to  one  inch  brought  $125,  and  for  over  one  inch,  $175. 
The  average  price  per  ton  in  England,  before  the  war  was 
$120. 

Prices  range  according  to  the  length  of  the  fiber  from  $15 
to  $900  per  ton.  In  the  United  States  the  average  price  dur- 
ing 1917  was  $300  per  ton. 

The  Cape  Asbestos  Company,  formed  in  1893,  con- 
Outlook,  trols  the  bulk  of  asbestos  production  in  South  Af- 
rica. The  asbestos  is  mostly  obtained  by  surface 
quarrying.  A  few  underground  mines  have  been  opened.  The 
mining  is  done  by  natives,  paid  according  to  the  quantity  they 
return.  Before  the  war  the  product  was  shipped  in  100-pound 
bags  to  Hamburg,  London  and  Turin,  Italy. 

Since  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  greater  interest  has  been 
shown  with  regard  to  the  mining  of  asbestos  in  South  Africa. 


124  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


Both  blue  and  white  asbestos  are  being  obtained  in  varying 
quantities  and  supplies  are  available  for  many  years. 

Previous  to  the  war  Germany  took  most  of  this  asbestos. 
England  and  the  United  States  are  now  taking  the  output  of 
the  old  and  newly-opened  areas.  Small  shipments  are  also  be- 
ing made  to  Japan. 

Shipments  of  asbestos  mined  in  the  Lydenburg  (Trans- 
vaal) district  have  been  made  to  America  to  the  extent  of 
freight  space  available.  Although  reported  to  be  not  equal  in 
quality  to  deposits  in  some  other  districts,  the  Lyndenburg  fibre 
is  of  great  length,  occasionally  reaching  18  inches,  and  mining 
conditions  are  exceptionally  favorable,  thus  ensuring  a  large 
output  at  small  working  cost. 

The  Union  of  South  Africa  holds  the  world's  record  for 
the  number  of  varieties  of  asbestos  fiber  produced,  including 
crocidolite,  amosite,  chrysolite  and  tremolite.  The  best 
known  of  these  is  crocidolite,  or  "Cape  blue,"  which  is  a  spin- 
ning fiber  and  available  in  large  quantities.  Several  asbestos 
factories  are  in  operation  in  South  Africa  and  the  industry  is 
expanding.  A  supply  is  assured  to  meet  any  expansion  in  the 
market  for  years  to  come,  particularly  near  Lydenburg  in  the 
Transvaal.  The  Carolina  district  is  said  to  have  a  limited  re- 
serve. 

GRAPHITE 

Graphite,  also  known  as  plumbago,  is  a  black,  opaque 
mineral  of  a  bright,  metallic  luster,  consisting  of  the  element 
carbon  crystallized.  It  is  one  of  the  softest  minerals,  greasy, 
and  soils  everything  it  touches.  Chemically  it  is  identical  with 
the  mineral  diamond,  and  a  good  conductor  of  electricity. 

Graphite  occurs  naturally  in  two  forms,  crystalline  and 
amorphous.  Crystalline  or  flake  graphite  occurs  in  veins. 
Amorphous  graphite  is  usually  found  near  coal  mines  or  other 
carbonaceous  deposits. 

The  world  consumption  of  graphite  is  about  100,000  tons 
per  year. 

The  Annual  Production  for  1913 

Austria   41,000  Tons 

Canada   1,500  " 

Ceylon   30,000  " 

Italy  12,000  " 

Mexico  2,000  " 

U.  S.  A 4,000  " 

Madagascar  8,000  " 


RAW   PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  125 


The  richest  deposits  in  the  world  are  at  Sotf- 
Wh*re  Found,    ora,  Mexico,  which  supplies  the  pencil  manu- 
facturers of  the  United  States.  It  is  produced 
in  New  York,  Canada,  Austrian  Alps,  Ceylon,  Russia,  India 
and  in  considerable  quantities  in  Madagascar. 

The  graphite  industry  has  made  remarkable  progress  in 
Madagascar  during  recent  years.  Nearly  200,000  natives  were 
employed  in  this  industry  in  1917.  The  graphite  is  found  in 
the  form  of  thin  flakes  not  over  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter. The  ore  contains  about  60  per  cent,  of  graphite  and  us- 
ually occurs  with  decomposed  gneiss  and  schist.  Ore  has  to  be 
crushed  and  the  graphite  floated  off  in  water  from  heavier 
impurities.  Even  the  purest  forms  contain  a  small  percentage 
of  volatile  matter  and  ash. 

In  1917  the  production  in  Madagascar  exceeded  by  about 
10,000  tons  that  of  any  previous  year  and  surpassed  the  output 
of  Ceylon. 

Production  (Tons) 

1917  35,000  Tons 

1916    25,480     " 

The  destination  of  Madagascar  output  is  about  evenly  di- 
vided between  France  and  England;  8,000  tons  was  shipped 
to  United  States  in  1917,  via  Marseilles. 

Production  was  commenced  in  Madagascar  on  a  commer- 
cial scale  in  1910;  by  1913  the  output  had  risen  to  8,000  tons. 
The  product  is  of  a  very  valuable  grade ;  the  price  in  England 
in  1913  was  £23  per  ton  while  that  from  Ceylon  was  £27,  the 
latter  always  bringing  highest  prices  in  the  market. 

There  is  a  small  output  of  graphite  in  the  Transvaal  near 
Zoutpansburg.  Also  found  in  Sierre  Leone  and  German  East 
Africa. 

Good  sized  reserves  are  reported  in  the  Congo  and  Mo- 
zambique, awaiting  cheaper  transportation  facilities. 

At  the  close  of  1918  and  first  of  1919  prices  for  best 
Prices,  quality  at  Tananariva  averaging  90  per  cent,  carbon, 
fell  from  $145  to  $97  per  ton.  New  York  prices  dur- 
ing the  year  were  slightly  lower  than  those  for  domestic  flake. 
Embargoes  and  lack  of  ships  have  seriously  hampered  the 
graphite  industry  ever  since  the  war  started.  In  November, 
1918,  flake  graphite  was  offered  at  600  francs  per  ton.  f.  o.  b. 
Tamatavi. 


126  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


Making  pencils,  dry  lubricants,  grate  polish,  paints, 
Uses,  crucibles  and  for  foundry  facings.  Most  of  the  Mada- 
gascar graphite  is  used  in  crucible  manufacture,  with  a 
small  amount  employed  as  lubricants.  Graphite  is  valued  ac- 
cording to  its  freedom  from  grit,  its  carbon  content  and  above 
all,  its  grain.  The  artificial  product  is  largely  used  for  lubri- 
cating purposes  and  for  electrodes,  but  not  for  crucible  mak- 
ing as  it  is  devoid  of  grain. 

Graphite  is  artificially  made  by  the  alteration  of  carbon 
at  high  temperatures  by  two  processes:  (1)  graphitization  of 
moulded  carbons  and  (2)  graphitization  of  anthracite  en 
masse.  The  artificial  product  is  said  to  be  fully  equal  to  the 
natural  material  in  electrical  conductivity  for  use  as  a  lubri- 
cant and  in  making  stove  polish  and  lead  pencils. 

Belgian,  English  and  French  commercial  and  in- 
Outlook*  dustrial  companies  and  factories  have  been  con- 
structed in  Madagascar  for  the  treatment  of  graph- 
ite, utilizing  both  wind  and  water  for  motive  power.  This  in- 
dustry is  advancing  rapidly  and  is  sure  of  a  great  future.  The 
present  mines  have  already  realized  more  than  a  million  tons. 
The  estimated  capacity  of  the  mines  is  4,000  tons  per  month. 
Bonneford,  a  French  geologist,  writing  in  1918,  estimates  2,- 
000,000  tons  of  merchantable  graphite  near  the  surface.  Im- 
portant discoveries  of  graphite  have  been  located  on  the  high 
plateaux  and  on  the  East  Coast  of  Africa.  These  have  inter- 
ested various  nationalities. 

The  over-production  during  the  war  has  been  largely  ab- 
sorbed. 

PETROLEUM 

Within  the  past  few  years  oil  has  become  the  most  sought- 
after  mineral  commodity.  Two  thousand  years  B.  C.  oil  was 
called  "burning  water"  and  worshipped  as  a  miracle  by  super- 
stitious Babylonians  who  burned  it  as  fuel  in  crude  lamps. 
Scientists  are  not  yet  wholly  agreed  as  to  whether  its  origin  is 
of  organic  or  inorganic  matter — whether  it  arises  from  decom- 
position of  animal  or  vegetable  substance. 

Oil  comes  from  the  ground,  a  dark,  thick,  strong-smelling, 
sticky  fluid  and  is  sent  to  factories  to  be  refined  into  gasoline, 
petrol,  petroleum,  vaseline.  It  enters  into  many  industrial  pro- 
ducts such  as  rubber,  paint,  cement,  resin,  dyes,  candy.  Al? 
machinery  is  dependent  upon  oil  to  reduce  friction.  Oil  drives 
automobiles,  furnishes  light,  heats  iurnaces,  pulls  'freight 
trains  and  moves  steamboats. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  127 

The  world's  production  of  petroleum  in  1918  was  514,- 
724,354  barrels  of  42  gallons  each. 

The  United  States  produces  about  three-fifths  of  the  to- 
tal; Mexico,  Russia,  Roumania,  Galicia,  Dutch  East  Indies, 
most  of  the  remainder.  The  amount  produced  in  Africa  is  one- 
half  of  one  per  cent,  of  total.  Soundings  for  petroleum  have 
been  made  in  many  parts  of  Africa  without  great  promise  of 
success. 

Egypt  is  the  chief  producing  country  of  Af- 
Production  by  rica.  Two  fields  near  the  Red  Sea  at  Hurga- 
Countries.  dar  and  Gemsah  produced  during  1917  over 

2,000,000  barrels  of  petroleum.  These  fields 
were  opened  up  in  1911  and  have  been  progressively  increas- 
ing their  output.  The  petroleum  is  deficient  in  oils  of  low 
specific  gravity  which  do  not  distill  into  kerosene  suitable  for 
illumination.  The  oil  is  chiefly  used  in  marine  engines. 

On  account  of  the  scarcity  of  coal  during  the  war,  Egypt 
was  using  vegetable  gas  made  from  cotton  stalks  and  other 
vegetable  matter  to  operate  engines. 

Production  in  Egypt — Barrels  of  42  Gallons 

1913  94,635 

1914  777,638 

1915  262,208 

1916  411,000 

1917  500,000 

Fifty  thousand  barrels  of  oil  per  annum  come  from  Al- 
geria.   The  Algerian  deposits  have  been  worked  for  years. 
Now  the  Algerian-Morocco  Boring  Co.  has  five  drilling  rigs  for 
active  exploitation. 

In  Morocco  at  Oued  Mellah  are  found  miocene  sands 
thoroughly  oil-saturated  which  hold  out  hope  for  valuable  de- 
velopments in  this  country. 

The  use  of  petroleum  is  rapidly  increasing  in  the  Congo 
as  well  as  in  the  other  parts  of  West  Africa.  All  new  river 
craft  are  of  the  oil-burning  type,  on  account  of  the  absence  of 
gas  and  electricity  and  the  high  cost  of  coal.  A  pipe  line  for 
conveying  oil  has  been  constructed  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Congo  river  220  miles  inland  to  Leopoldville. 

A  large  part  of  the  illuminating  and  fuel  oils  come  from 
America  and  pay  the  customs  duty  of  12  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 
Before  the  war  the  amount  of  fuel  oil  used  in  Belgian  Congo 
was  estimated  at  20,000  tons  a  year,  but  this  amount  is  likely 


128  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


to  increase  to  50,000  tons  per  year.   A  large  quantity  of  Am- 
erican oil  is  shipped  to  Boma  for  distribution. 

A  small  yield  of  mineral  oils  is  taken  out  of  the  Congo 
fields.  During  the  second  half  of  1918  the  Belgian  Congo  ex- 
ported 400  tons  of  petrol,  15  tons  benzine  and  170  tons  of  oth- 
er mineral  oils. 

A  report  of  official  investigation  for  petroleum 
Union  of  by  E.  H.  Cunningham  Craig,  September,  1913, 

South  Africa,  closes  as  follows :  "I  am  of  the  opinion  that 
prospecting  of  the  folding  belt  of  the, Karoo 
system  for  crude  petroleum  and  natural  gas  is  of  less  import- 
ance than  the  development  of  shale  mining  and  refining.  All 
the  evidence  to  hand  at  present  leads  to  the  belief  that  an  oil 
shale  industry  has  good  prospects  for  proving  successful,  and  I 
would  urge  that  no  effort  be  spared  to  insure  that  a  fair  test  of 
its  possibilities  be  made." 

The  oil  shales  of  South  Africa  are  considered  thin  in  com- 
parison to  the  Scotch  and  not  very  rich.  Up  to  the  present  on- 
ly one  small  area  has  been  properly  examined  in  the  north- 
western portion  of  the  Utrecht  district  of  Natal.  Examination 
indicates  a  sufficient  tonnage  to  warrant  a  plant  of  300  tons  a 
day.  The  yield  of  ammonia  is  large. 

In  Southeastern  Transvaal  at  Kirkvorschf  ontein  and  near 
Dordrecht,  oil  seepages  occur. 

In  South  Africa  efforts  have  from  time  to 
Manufacture  of  time  been  undertaken  to  produce  an  alco- 
Motor  Fuel.  hoi  motor  fuel  as  a  substitute  for  gasoline. 

Many  sources  of  alcohol  have  been  tried,  in- 
cluding maize,  prickly  pear,  potatoes  and  cane-sugar  molasses. 
In  the  molasses  of  the  Natal  sugar  plantation,  the  Union  ap- 
parently possesses  a  large  source  of  supply  adapted  for  the 
purpose  of  motor  fuel  and  known  as  natalite. 

To  encourage  the  establishment  of  such  an  industry, 
Parliament  passed  legislation  enacting  that  no  excise  duty 
should  be  levied  on  Union  spirits  or  on  ether  manufactured 
from  Union  spirits,  providing  such  spirits  are  used  as  fuel  for 
internal  combustion  engines.  As  a  result  of  this  legislation  a 
factory  for  the  distilling  of  motor  fuel  has  been  erected  near 
Durban,  costing  $400,000.  The  distilling  plant  has  a  capacity 
of  3,000  gallons  per  day. 

This  locally-produced  fuel  has  recently  been  placed  on 
the  Johannesburg  market  at  a  price  a  little  below  that  of  gas- 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  129 


oline.  According  to  a  Cape  Town  newspaper,  a  warning  has 
been  given  that  this  motor  spirit  is  not  suitable  for  cars  having 
carburetors  with  a  cork  float  as  it  apparently  contains  a 
denaturing  chemical  which  quickly  destroys  a  shellac  casing. 

Important  wells  of  naphtha  exist  over  a  great  part  of  the 
west  coast  of  the  island  of  Madagascar. 

Petroleum  is  being  taken  out  in  Angola  by  a  Portuguese- 
American  company  which  has  explored  the  region  thoroughly 
and  finds  moderate  prospects. 

A  small  quantity  is  obtained  in  Mozambique. 

The  discovery  of  important  oil  fields  would  mean 
Outlook,  an  economic  transformation  in  Africa,  so  many 
are  the  uses  of  this  fluid  as  fuel  lubricant,  illumin- 
ant  and  for  industrial  purposes.  Much  effort  and  many  pros- 
pecting surveys  have  been  made  but  as  yet  no  very  important 
discoveries  have  been  announced.  Egypt  is  likely  to  remain 
the  chief  source  of  African  petroleum,  though  Angola  and  Al- 
geria hold  out  promise.  Thorough  and  determined  investiga- 
tion will  be  made  throughout  the  continent  after  the  war. 

PHOSPHATES 

Phosphate  rock  is  a  sedimentary  deposit  containing  phos- 
phate of  lime  and  occurring  as  a  hard  rock  between  beds  of 
sandstone  or  shale.  Phosphates  are  used  chiefly  for  fertilizing 
ingredients ;  also  for  matches,  for  making  phosphoric  acid  and 
for  use  in  metallurgy. 

The  world's  output  of  phosphate  for  1913  was  6,000,000 
tons,  one-half  of  which  came  from  the  United  States.  Tunis 
ranks  second  to  the  United  States  with  Algeria  third.  The  re- 
serves of  phosphate  rock  in  Northern  Africa  have  been  esti- 
mated at  300,000,000  tons. 

The  subjoined  table  contains  the  principal  numerical  data 
recently  published  by  the  International  Institute  of  Agricul- 
ture in  Rome. 

Production  of  Natural  Phosphates  (tons) 

1916  1915  1913 

Spain  14,000  9,000  4,000 

United  States  2,014,000         1,865,000         3,161,000 
Dutch  Antilles       14,000  29,000  36,000 

Algeria  380,000  165,000  461,000 

Egypt  125,000  83,000  104,000 

Tunis 1,695,000         1,389,000         2,285,000 

French  IsPnds 

in  Pacific  ..       27,000  72,000  82,000 


130  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 

The  principal  deposit  of  phosphate  in  Tunis  is  Gaf  sa  fields 
in  the  southern  part,  where  the  annual  output  runs  over  a  mil- 
lion and  a  half  tons  of  60  to  68  per  cent,  phosphate.  These 
beds  have  been  worked  since  1885.  The  product  goes  to  South- 
ern Europe. 

The  deposits  in  Algeria  are  at  Setif  and  Tebessa  in  the 
eastern  region  and  produce  500,000  tons  annually.  The  rock 
contains  65  per  cent,  of  lime  phosphate. 

Egypt  has  phosphate  beds  at  Port  Saf algo  near  Suez 
canal,  and  at  Sebara  on  the  Nile.  These  mines  are  operated  by 
British  and  Italian  firms  who  ship  the  product  mostly  to 
Japan. 

The  growing  scarcity  of  fertilizers  has  long 
Fertilizers  in  been  evident  to  the  South  African  agricultural 
South  Africa,  community.  Strenuous  efforts  are  being  made 
by  those  interested  to  convert  the  large  depos- 
its of  iron-alumina  phosphates  known  to  exist  in  South  Africa 
into  a  form  suitable  for  agricultural  use.  Inquiries  are  also  be- 
ing made  as  to  the  extent  and  nature  of  alleged  phosphatic  de- 
posits in  former  German  Southwest  Africa.  Deposits  of  low 
grade  phosphates  are  found  in  Natal  near  Ladysmith  and 
Byrnetown. 

One  hundred  miles  inland  from  Casablanca  in  Morocco 
there  is  a  mountain  plateau  40  miles  long  and  25  miles  wide 
which  is  a  veritable  storehouse  of  phosphate.  A  railway  is  to 
be  built  to  this  mountain  and  a  monopoly  has  been  given  to 
the  Moroccan  government.  bhov*  r 

At  Dielor  in  Senegal  there  is  a  large  phosphate  bed  of  50 
per  cent,  of  tricalcium  phosphate,  but  not  workable. 

Deposits  of  phosphates  occur  one  hundred  miles  south  of 
city  of  Tripoli. 

Phosphates  and  sulphates  of  lime  are  found  in  Angola. 

Under  French  development  Northern  Africa  will 
Outlook,  likely  continue  as  the  world's  leading  producer  of 
phosphates.  New  railroads  are  being  laid  and  sev- 
eral million  tons  for  a  century  may  be  taken  out.  The  labor 
situation  is  rather  precarious.  The  bulk  of  the  miners  in  the 
desert  regions  are  wandering  tribes  of  Kabyles,  who  are  un- 
certain in  their  movements.  Tunis,  Algeria  and  Morocco  will 
produce  large  quantities  of  phosphates  for  the  eastern  hemi- 
sphere, 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  131 


POTASH 

Before  the  war  the  great  bulk  of  the  world's  potash  (K«O) 
came  from  Stassfurt  in  Germany.  There  are  also  deposits  in 
Alsace,  Spain,  Galicia  and  Chili.  Since  the  outbreak  of  war 
considerable  has  been  produced  in  the  United  States. 

In  Abyssinia  there  are  deposits  from  which  the  salts  are 
carried  on  camel  back  fifty  miles  to  the  coast,  about  1000  tons 
per  month. 

The  Italian  Company  developing  these  deposits  estimate 
a  reserve  of  850,000  tons.  Output  steadily  increasing. 

New  deposits  of  potash  and  nitrate  have  been  opened  up 
at  Poison  Hill  in  German  Southwest  Africa  since  the  occu- 
pancy by  the  English. 

SALT 

Salt  is  generously  diffused  through  Africa,  both  in  form  of 
brine  salt  obtained  by  evaporation  and  rock  salt  by  quarrying. 

Salt  is  found  in  natron  deposits. 

In  1912,  salt  mines  were  opened  on  the  French  Somali 
coast,  and  in  1916,  there  was  exported  8,000  metric  tons. 

German  East  Africa  yields  quantities  of  sodium,  and  chlo- 
rine salts  are  found.  The  Central  African  Mines  Company 
extracts  sea  salt  at  various  places  along  the  coast. 

Tunis  (1913)  produced  94,100  tons. 

Algeria  (1913)  produced  26,969  tons. 

The  output  was  much  reduced  by  the  war. 

In  Abyssinia  salt  bars  are  used  for  money.  The  natives 
exchange  gold,  rubber,  ivory  and  commodities  not  essential 
to  life,  for  the  salt  bars  which  caravans  bring  across  the  des- 
ert from  Timbuctu. 

•'!FnerlHiibri  of  South  Africa  produced  in  1918,  57,984  tons 
of  salt  valued  at  £106,000. 

Algeria  is  said  to  have  reserves  of  250,000  tons  of  salt 
in  its  mines. 

The  Congo  has  salt  near  the  coast  but  not  in  the  interior. 
Lake  Tchad,  although  an  inland  sea  without  apparent  outlet, 
has  no  salt  deposits,  and  the  imported  salt  bars  are  found 
throughout  the  Sahara  region. 

Salt  is  one  of  the  principal  industries  of  Mauretania  and 
salt  beds  exist  on  the  coast  also.  In  French  Guinea  the  year- 
ly salt  output  is  not  more  than  100  tons.  In  Dahomey  the  na- 
tives of  the  littoral  villages  obtain  salt  from  the  lagoon  waters. 

The  salt  sold  by  the  Mauretanians  comes  from  Sebkhael- 
Khadera  where  4,000  tons  a  year  are  produced,  and  from  the 


132  RAW  PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


Taraze  mines  which  produce  1,000  tons  a  year.  The  former 
is  a  deep  depression  in  a  vast  desert  region  whose  center  is 
marked  by  a  trough  about  50  kilometers  in  extent.  This 
trough  dries  quickly  and  the  salt  may  be  gathered  annually. 
The  sand  covering  the  salt  is  first  removed,  then  the  salt  is 
cut  into  bars  weighing  about  25  kilograms.  There  are  sev- 
eral layers  of  salt.  When  one  portion  of  the  trough  or  pool 
is  exhausted  another  is  worked ;  the  rains  fill  the  holes  again 
and  salt  is  formed.  In  two  or  three  years  the  pits  are  filled  to 
overflowing  again.  One  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  bars  are 
mined  annually. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  salt  thus  mined  and  exported  is 
worth  about  1,000,000  francs  yearly. 

It  is  pure  white,  smooth  and  sometimes  has  red  streaks. 
This  salt  supplies  the  whole  of  West  Soudan. 

Salt  is  packed  in  goat  skins  and  sold  in  the  Soudan  mar- 
kets for  from  10  to  20  centimes  per  kilogram. 

At  Goumbou  all  trading  is  carried  on  with  salt.  Two- 
thirds  of  annual  imports,  valued  200,000  francs,  are  for  salt, 
the  other  third  for  cattle. 

In  Mozambique  the  Zambezi  Company  operates  salt 
plants  in  several  localities. 

At  Indugo  the  salt  pits  are  situated  three  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  river  Macuae.  The  water  is  conducted  at  high  tide 
to  the  beds,  when  it  is  slowly  evaporated,  leaving  the  salt  to  be 
shoveled  into  sacks. 

Forty  thousand  sacks  of  60  pounds  each  is  the  estimated 
output  of  this  Indugo  station.  Considerable  salt  is  exported 
to  foreign  countries. 

Madagascar  yields  much  salt,  as  do  the  smaller  islands 
of  the  Indian  and  Atlantic  oceans.  In  the  Cape  Verde  Islands 
Sal  is  the  center  of  salt  manufacturing  industry. 

Salt  pans  are  found  and  worked  in  many  parts  of  South 
African  colonies.  The  largest  are  in  the  Cape  Province  near 
Uitenhage,  where  100,000  bushels  have  been  procured  in  a 
year. 

Export  Figures 
Mozambique  exported  salt: — 

1913 through  Chinde  to  the  value  of $4,375 

1913 Mozambique  to  the  value  of  2,742 

1913 Beira  to  the  value  of  7,836 

1914 "        Chinde  to  the  value  of 5,203 

1915... 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  133 


1916 "        Chinde   2,271,141  Ibs.  salt. 

1916 Mozambique....    959,662  ' 

1915.. ..Algeria  exported  1,875  tons  valued  at  $14,475 
1916....       "  "         3,910     "         "      "     30,108 

1915.. ..Egypt  exported  salt  to  the  value  of  $144,246 
1916....     "  "  "     "     "       "       "     112,764 

1914,  French  Somali  exported  crude  salt  to  the  value  of 
$20,000. 

1915,  Katanga  exported  5.14  tons  of  salt. 

In  the  second  half  of  1918,  Belgian  Congo  exported  10 
tons  table  salt. 

SODA 

Next  to  lime,  soda  is  the  most  common  alkali. 

Borate  and  benzoate  of  soda  are  used  in  preserving  food. 

German  East  Africa  yields  great  quantities  of  sodium 
and  there  seems  to  be  unlimited  supply  of  carbonate  of  soda. 

Two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  west  of  Mombassa  in  Brit- 
ish East  Africa,  is  a  lake  of  soda  16  miles  long  and  four  miles 
wide.  Inflowing  waters  have  brought  the  soda  deposit  and  the 
glare  of  the  tropical  sun  has  drawn  the  water  from  the  lake, 
filled  past  the  saturation  point  with  the  soda,  till  it  is  crystal- 
lized into  a  solid  mass. 

Magadi  Soda  Lake,  of  about  30  square  miles,  and  10  feet 
deep,  is  just  north  of  the  German  boundary.  The  bottom  of  the 
lake  is  covered  with  carbonate  of  soda  which  re-forms  as  water 
flows  into  spaces  from  which  soda  has  been  taken.  The  total 
deposit  is  estimated  at  200,000,000  tons.  Prior  to  the  war 
preparations  were  being  made  for  an  annual  output  of  160,000 
tons.  This  Lake  was  leased  for  99  years  in  1911  by  an  Eng- 
lish Company.  Drying  sheds  were  erected  in  1912. 

Considerable  soda  is  found  in  the  hills  bordering  the 
Nile,  and  the  Egyptian  output  of  this  commodity  is  an  im- 
portant item  in  the  country's  commerce,  although  it  has  not 
been  sufficiently  worked  to  give  it  a  leading  place. 

Pretoria  in  Union  of  South  Africa  produced  soda  (1918) 
valued  at  $47,000. 

NATRON 

Natron  or  trona  is  a  hydrous  sodium  carbonate,  crystalliz- 
ing in  the  monoclinic  system.  It  occurs  in  nature  only  in  solution 
as  in  Natron  or  Soda  Lakes  of  Egypt.  These  lakes  are  eight 
in  number  and  located  in  the  Libyan  Desert,  60  miles  north- 
west of  Cairo.  They  were  the  source  of  soda  salts  used  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians  in  their  embalming  processes. 


134  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 

Natron  is  found  near  the  volcanic  deposits  north  of  Kili- 
mandjaro,  German  East  Africa. 

Abyssinia  has  natron  in  small  quantities. 

Eritrea  manufactures  bicarbonate  of  soda  from  natron 
sent  principally  to  Australia  for  canning  foods. 

Natron  is  used  in  glass  and  soap  making. 

LIMESTONE 

Limestone  comprises  the  carbonates,  among  the  most 
common  of  rocks.  Limestone  varies  in  hardness  from  the  firm- 
est and  most  close-grained  marble  to  chalk,  and  furnishes  ma- 
terial for  many  purposes.  It  is  formed  of  fossil  shells,  and  is 
used  for  building  stones,  in  road-making,  broken  for  railroad 
ballast,  as  flux  in  smelting,  for  making  chemicals,  glass,  con- 
crete, sulphite  pulp  and  paper. 

Lime  is  produced  by  burning  or  calcining  limestone  in 
kilns  and  is  used  in  making  soap  and  candles,  in  unhairing 
skins  and  hides;  slaked  lime  is  used  as  a  fertilizer,  and  for 
purifying  coal  gas.  One  of  its  most  common  uses  is  for  mortar, 
made  by  mixing  air-slacked  lime  and  sand  with  water  to  form 
a  paste;  as  the  moisture  dries  out  the  mortar  "sets*'  arid  be- 
comes hard  and  strong,  as  was  the  limestone  in  the  beginning. 
Hydraulic  limestones  make  a  cement  that  combines  chemically 
with  water  and  does  not  depend  on  drying  for  the  "setting." 
This  cement  is  made  from  hydraulic  lime,  marls,  chalk,  clay, 
volcanic  tufa  and  slag. 

Limestone  in  its  various  forms  is  to  be  found  in  many 
countries  of  Africa  and  is  exported  from  a  few  quarries. 

Cretaceous  formation  of  Africa  is  favorable  to  limestone. 

In  Senegal  are  rich  deposits  of  lime  in  the  shell  beds  that 
are  in  process  of  rock  formation.  These  beds  have  been  worked 
for  many  years  and  in  1879  the  Saint-Louis  beds  exported  130 
hogsheads  of  lime.  This  shell  material  makes  good  pottery 
and  brought  about  pottery  manufacture  which,  while  it  has 
never  become  an  extensive  business,  has  nevertheless  furnished 
much  output  for  local  use  and  small  yearly  exports  also. 

In  French  West  Africa,  on  the  beach  of  Popenguine,  is 
found  a  white  calcareous  rock  which  makes  good  limestone 
and  lime.  Shell  deposits  of  ages  have  produced  a  calcareous 
soil  in  all  this  region. 

In  Madagascar  phosphate  of  lime  is  found  and  promises 
to  develop  into  a  large  industry. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  135 


In  the  Union  of  South  Africa  a  large  and  increasing 
amount  of  cement  is  being  made  from  limestone. 

MARBLE 

Marble  (marmor)  is  limestone  capable  of  taking  polish  or 
being  used  for  sculptural  purposes.  It  differs  from  common 
limestone  in  that  it  is  more  or  less  crystallized  by  metamorph- 
ism. 

In  German  Southwest  Africa  there  are  mountains  of  mar- 
ble, varied  in  color  and  said  to  be  equal  to  Carrara  marble  in 
quality.  There  are  great  quantities  of  white  marble  suitable 
for  statuary,  but  as  yet  comparatively  little  worked.  The  col- 
ored varieties  are  being  more  extensively  worked. 

In  French  West  Africa  a  good  deal  of  marble  has  been 
discovered,  some  of  which  has  been  worked  by  the  natives  for 
many  years.  In  the  Bandiagara  district  is  a  valuable  quarry 
of  such  finely  crystallized  marble  that  it  is  used  for  small  sculp- 
ture work,  fine  carving,  and  for  jewelry. 

Algeria  produces  white  and  pink  marble,  also  yellow, 
gray  and  red  onyx. 

Tunis  and  Morocco  quarries  furnished  marble  for  the  Ro- 
man Republic. 

In  Egypt,  near  the  Red  Sea,  there  are  many  varieties  of 
marble.  The  Egyptians,  the  Romans  and  the  modern  Arabs 
have  all  quarried  building  stone  from  northern  Africa. 

DeLaunay,  the  distinguished  authority  on  minerals,  wrote 
in  1903,  that  many  beautiful  marbles  would  likely  be  found  in 
the  heart  of  Africa. 

GYPSUM 

Gypsum  is  known  as  hydrated  calcium  sulphate,  of  tex- 
ture so  soft  as  to  be  easily  scratched.  A  variety  of  this  rock  is 
partially  transparent.  The  best  known  form  of  gypsum  is  ala- 
baster, a  beautiful  white  species  popular  in  making  statuettes 
and  other  fine  ornamental  art  works. 

Alabaster,  named  for  the  Egyptian  village  Alabastron, 
was  quarried  near  Memphis  as  early  as  the  days  of  the  Pha- 
raoh Cheops.  The  rich  cream  and  amber  tone  of  thi?  'stone 
adds  much  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  ancient  mosques,  tombs 
and  citadels  of  Egypt. 

Heat  crumbles  gypsum  and  makes  a  powder  known  as 
plaster  of  paris,  which  calcined  material  can  be  rendered  solid 
again  by  the  use  of  water,  and  is  used  in  plaster  casts  and 
other  ornamental  objects.  Wall  plaster  is  made  from  plaster 
of  paris,  mixed  with  sand  and  animal  or  vegetable  fiber,  and 


136  RAW  PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


does  not  set  so  rapidly  as  pure  plaster  of  pans.    Powdered 
gypsum  is  also  used  in  making  paper  and  baking  powder. 

Gypsum  is  found  in  many  parts  of  Africa  but  has  never 
been  made  an  extensive  article  of  commerce,  although  in  lo- 
calities its  various  forms  are  being  worked,  and  several  fine 
varieties  have  been  discovered  in  limestone  regions.  In  the 
Southwest  African  Protectorate  there  are  enormous  deposits. 

TALC 

Talc  is  a  soft  mineral,  whitish,  greenish  or  gray  in  color, 
and  found  in  granular  or  fibrous  masses.  Talc  in  used  in  mak- 
ing bath  and  laundry  tubs,  hearthstones  and  fire-brick,  grid- 
dles, pencils  for  tailors  and  dress-makers,  gas  tips.  Powdered, 
it  is  used  for  foundry  facings,  lubricating  machinery,  dressing 
skins  and  leather,  and  in  paints  and  toilet  powder.  It  is  also 
used  for  "loading"  in  making  paper,  and  may  have  been  used 
in  adulterating  sugar  or  flour. 

Talc  is  mined  in  Barberton  district  in  sufficient  quanti- 
ties to  supply  most  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa.  The  output  in 
1917  was  785  tons,  valued  at  $9,700.  Slate  pencils,  tailors' 
chalk,  bianco,  toilet  powders,  cloth  balls  for  cleaning  purposes 
and  billiard  chalk  are  now  being  manufactured  in  the  Union 
from  the  local  product.  Large  quantities  of  powdered  talc  are 
used  in  motor  garages  for  the  inside  of  tires,  for  soap  and  paint 
manufacture,  for  dressing  of  leather  and  lasting  of  boots  and 
shoes.  Practically  the  whole  of  the  Union  requirements  in  many 
of  these  lines  are  now  being  supplied  from  local  sources.  With 
increased  shipping  facilities  a  good  export  trade  is  likely. 

CHALK 

Chalk,  the  softest  of  the  limestone  formations,  resembles 
white  clay,  but  is  more  brittle,  and  can  only  be  used  in  a  sub- 
stantial way  in  powdered  form.  From  chalk  is  made  whiting; 
whitewash,  made  by  mixing  whiting  with  water  and  a  small 
amount  of  glue;  putty,  mixed  with  linseed  oil;  adulterant  for 
white  pigments  in  paint.  Prepared  chalk  is  used  as  a  toilet  pow- 
der and  for  polishing  metals  and  other  materials. 

There  are  great  chalk  beds  on  the  fringe  of  the  Sahara 
Desert,  which  have  been  partially  worked  for  many  years. 

OTHER  PRECIOUS  STONES 

Diamonds  are  not  the  only  precious  stones  to  be  found  in 
Africa,  though  most  important  in  quantity  and  value. 


RAW   PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  137 


Rhodesia  produces  topaz,  tourmaline,  wolframite  and  oth- 
ers of  less  value. 

East  Africa  produces  tcpaz,  agate,  moonstone,  quartz, 
crystal,  garnets  and,  in  lesser  amount,  rubies  and  sapphires. 

Madagascar  is  rich  in  precious  stones.  Rubies,  sapphires, 
tourmalines,  beryls  and  garnets  are  found  near  Manandona 
river.  The  beryl  is  green,  rose  and  white.  The  garnet  is  of  a 
brownish  red,  and  the  tourmaline  is  of  red  and  yeDow  tints. 
Other  precious  stones  known  as  pierres  de  fantaisie  are  abun- 
dant in  Madagascar.  The  opal  has  been  discovered  but  is  not 
yet  quarried  to  any  appreciable  extent. 

Numerous  beds  of  pegmatites  exist  containing  crystals  and 
nuggets  of  uraniferotis  stone.  These  nodules  are  rich  in  uran- 
ium and  contain  up  to  25  and  26  per  cent,  of  this  ore.  Their 
radio-active  power  has  not  yet  been  determined.  They  are  sit- 
uated between  Antsirabe  and  Betafo. 

In  South  Africa  are  many  semi-precious  stones,  much  used 
for  jewelry  and  other  ornamental  purposes.  The  Cape  ruby, 
or  precious  garnet,  is  obtained  from  dianiondiferous  deposits 
and  cut  in  Kimberley.  These  stones  bring  about  $1.00  per  carat 
and  part  of  them  are  clear,  beautiful  stones.  Agate  or  onyx 
of  fine  quality  is  obtained  from  the  river  wash  of  the  Orange 
and  Vaal  rivers.  This  takes  a  high  polish  and  is  in  demand 
for  personal  and  household  adornment.  Red  crystals  are  found 
in  corundum  deposits;  the  balas  ruby  is  found  in  the  Zibaic 
Mine  in  the  Carnarvon  district;  verdite  is  worked  in  the  Bar- 
berton  district.  The  laurel  crown  on  the  statue  of  Victory  in 
London  came  from  this  mine. 

Emeralds  are  found  in  Egypt,  at  Djebel  Sabara.  Some  of 
these  stones  are  very  beautiful  and  bring  a  high  price.  In  the 
Sinai  peninsula  are  found  turquoise  and  malachite.  Angola 
and  German  Southwest  Africa  also  have  malachite. 

Onyx,  chalcedony  and  other  stones  that  made  up  Solo- 
mon's temple  are  found  in  Africa. 

Prase,  a  green  variety  of  chalcedony,  is  found  in  Swazi- 
land; tiger  eye  or  cat's  eye,  is  crocidolite  asbestos  hardened 
by  infiltration  of  silica  and  of  color  ranging  from  yellow  to 
brown,  caused  by  the  oxidation  of  iron.  It  takes  a  fine  polish 
and  is  used  in  jewelry. 

MINERALS  OF  MINOR  PRODUCTION 
Basalt,  a  dark,  heavy,  fine-grained,  igneous  rock,  is  found 
in  the  Canaries. 


138  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


Bismuth,  a  lustrous,  reddish-white  metal,  used  in  prepar- 
ation of  pharmaceutical  products  and  cosmetics,  is  being  taken 
out  in  small  quantities  of  60-70  per  cent,  ore  in  Rhodesia. 

Corundum  is  an  abrasive  of  very  good  quality  found  in 
decomposed  pegmatites.  The  price  in  Europe  averages  $100 
or  more  per  ton. 

The  principal  countries  producing  corundum  are  Can- 
ada, United  States,  Naxos,  Transvaal,  Madagascar.  Since  the 
war  the  production  in  the  two  last  named  has  been  consider- 
able, the  value  in  1916  from  the  Transvaal  being  £7,762, 
though  previous  amounts  had  been  trifling.  In  Madagascar 
1,532  tons  were  exported  in  1916,  as  compared  with  334  tons 
in  1915. 

Corundum  has  been  discovered  in  payable  quantities  on 
a  farm  in  the  Zoutpansberg  district  of  the  Union  of  South  Af- 
rica. After-the-war  conditions  will  not  likely  be  favorable  to 
development  of  African  corundum. 

Titanium,  a  dark  gray  metal,  is  found  in  numerous  beds 
in  Madagascar,  where  the  ore  sometimes  attains  50  per  cent. 
The  mines  of  Betairy  contain  amounts  visible  on  the  surface, 
exceeding  100,000  tons. 

In  Tripoli  is  found  infuscrial  earth,  valuable  in  mak- 
ing explosives.  It  is  known  in  commerce,  under  the  name 
'Tripoli". 

Bitumen  is  being  worked  near  Stanleyville  in  Belgian 
Congo. 

Mercury  is  found  in  Algeria  and  Tunis. 
ANTIMONY 

Antimony,  a  silver-white,  crystalline  metal  used  in  chem- 
istry and  medicine,  is  found  in  Morocco,  in  the  Transvaal,  and 
at  Djebel  Taya,  in  Algeria, 

Asia  is  the  chief  source  of  antimony,  supplying  50  per 
cent,  of  the  world's  output.  France  is  second  with  nearly  25 
per  cent.,  followed  by  Mexico  and  Austria-Hungary.  Algeria 
produces  1  per  cent,  but  is  capable  of  much  development. 
There  is  a  small  output  in  Morocco  and  also  in  the  Transvaal 
The  Algerian  ores  are  nearly  all  oxidized,  and  contain  many 
rare  antimony  minerals.  The  number  of  metric  tons  of  anti- 
mony mined  in  Algeria : 

1913 582  Tons 

1914 1,100     " 

1915  , 9r022     " 

1916  28,473     " 


RAW   PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  139 


This  was  smelted  at  Marseilles. 

British  South  Africa  produced  617  tons  in  1917,  and  is 
increasing  her  output. 

Antimony  is  also  found  as  a  by-product  of  the  gold  mine* 
in  Southern  Rhodesia. 

Output  in  the  Transvaal  in  1915  was  90  tons;  in  1916, 
720  tons  valued  at  $73,400 ;  the  ore  varied  from  40  to  70  per 
cent.  In  1918,  only  99  tons. 

Deposits  are  found  in  Rhodesia  but  not  worked. 

U»e«. — Chiefly  as  a  hardening  in  white  metal  alloys,  type, 
shrapnel  bullets,  Britannia  metal,  in  dyeing  and  rubber  indus- 
tries, glass  making  and  enameling  iron  wares.  War  muni- 
tions have  called  for  increased  output  of  antimony. 

Monazite,  which  enters  into  the  fabrication  of  welsbach 
burners,  is  obtained  in  small  quantities  in  Mozambique. 

Radium,  the  metal  in  transition  between  uranium  and 
lead  has  been  discovered  in  small  quantities  in  German  East 
Africa  and  Northern  Madagascar.  Radium  is  used  for  lum- 
inous paints  and  for  instruments  used  in  airships;  also  in  the- 
rapeutics and  particularly  in  the  recently  discovered  cure 
for  cancer. 

Platinum  to  the  amount  of  lJ/2  ounces  to  the  ton  was  tak- 
en from  the  Black  Reef  in  South  Africa.  Traces  have  been 
found  in  Egypt. 

Molybdenum  and  vanadium  are  taken  from  the  Otavi 
mining  district  in  former  German  Southwest  Africa. 

Tungsten  occurs  with  a  number  of  minerals  but  the  only 
ones  dealt  with  on  a  commercial  scale  are  wolfram  and  scheel- 
ite,  the  former  being  the  most  common.  Tungsten  ores  are 
treated  by  water  concentration  and  if  associated  with  tin  are 
passed  through  a  magnetic  separator.  Between  1897  and  1914 
the  price  of  tungsten  ore  varied  between  9s.  and  51s.  a  unit, 
the  highest  price  being  recorded  in  1907. 

Uses. — In  the  form  of  tungsten  powder  (metal)  or  fer- 
ro-tungsten  (alloy)  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  special 
high-speed  tool  steels ;  the  best  tungsten  steel  will  contain  up 
to  20  per  cent,  metallic  tungsten.  It  is  used  also  for  filaments 
for  electric  lamps,  in  various  surgical,  dental  and  other  in- 
struments, and  in  less  important  uses. 

The  principal  countries  producing  tungsten  are  United 
States,  Burma,  Australia,  Portugal,  Argentine,  Bolivia  and 
Japan;  it  has  been  known  in  Southern  Rhodesia  since  1906, 


HO  RAW   PRODUCTS   OP  AFRICA 


but  the  mines  had  not  been  worked  for  years  until  the  war 
with  Germany;  production  in  1917  was  about  29  tons,  valued 
at  $25,000. 

The  prospecting  in  Rhodesia  has  nowhere  been  more  than 
a  few  feet  below  the  surface.  The  tungsten  reefs  vary  from 
200  yards  to  about  a  mile  long,  situated  within  a  block  about 
10  square  miles  near  Essexvale.  Also  occurs  in  German  South- 
west Africa. 

Nickel,  used  chiefly  as  alloy  in  nickel-steel,  is  found  in 
Africa.  A  promising  deposit  of  nickel  from  pyrrhotite  occurs 
in  norite  at  lusigora,  Cape  Province. 

A  bed  of  gamierite  containing  millions  of  tons,  has  been 
discovered  at  Valozoro,  Madagascar.  The  content  of  nickel 
oxide  runs  as  high  as  25  per  cent,  for  part  of  the  bed,  but  the 
average  is  5  to  6  per  cent. 

There  is  a  small  production  of  magnesite  in  the  Trans- 
vaal, 780  tons  in  1918.  This  mineral  is  used  in  making  refrac- 
tory bricks  and  furnace  linings  and  cement  floors;  also  as  a 
source  of  magnesium  salts.  Large  deposits  in  Angola  in  vol- 
canic districts. 

Sulphur  is  found  in  various  parts  of  Africa.  In  South  Af- 
rica there  are  several  deposits,  but  the  only  ones  of  any  value 
are  in  the  northern  part. 

Suiphur  is  obtained  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  volcanic 
deposits  of  the  Sahara  Desert,  in  the  hinterland  of  Tripoli  and 
Algeria.  It  is  also  obtained  near  Novo  Redondo  in  Angola. 

Rhodesia  is  capable  of  giving  good  outputs  of  sulphur. 
Water  in  certain  localities  is  so  sulphurous  as  to  make  the 
places  where  these  springs  occur  more  or  leas  famous  as 
health  resorts. 

In  1915  the  Transvaal  exported  487  tons  of  iron  pyrites 
valued  at  $4,200. 

In  Madagascar  sulphur  is  found  and  gives  promise  of  a 
large  output. 

Aluminous  laterites  have  been  discovered  in  Ashanti, 
Rhodesia,  Nigeria,  Congo.  Bauxite  deposits  in  French  Guinea 
have  resulted  from  alteration  of  the  gneisses  and  feldspathie 
rocks. 

Cinnabar  is  reported  in  Transvaal,  Abyssinia  and  Mada- 
gascar. Deposits  are  being  worked  in  Algeria,  from  which 
vermillion  is  obtained. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  HI 


VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS 

Although  Africa  is  one-third  desert,  agriculture  seems 
destined  to  become  the  main  economic  resource  of  this  vast, 
a: most  virgin,  continent.  Jungles  and  deserts  will  be  reclaimed 
least  in  part.  With  transportation  facilities  extending  in- 
land from  the  coast  immense  plateaux  will  be  opened  up  for 
cultivation  of  grainy, 

Africa  leads  the  world  in  production  of  palm  oil,  cocoa, 
cloves,  cassava,  kola,  gums,  esparto.  Other  large  exports  are 
dates  and  olives  from  North  Africa,  peanuts  from  West  Coast, 
bananas  from  Central  Africa,  sisal  from  East  Coast,  developed 
largely  through  German  initiative.  Fruits  for  European  and 
American  winter  markets  are  profitably  raised  in  the  South. 

Vegetables  originating  in  Africa  include  watermelon, 
Carob-beans,  okra,  cucumber,  Kaffir  corn,  sorghum,  gum  Ara- 
bic, oil-palm,  coffee,  kola,  gourds,  Guinea  pepper,  Lanclolphia 
rubber,  locusts,  papyrus,  ground  nuts,  canary  grass,  carda- 
mons,  narcissus,  lotus,  castor-bean,  several  pot-herbs. 

Missions  and  experiment  stations  of  various  nations  are 
teaching  the  black  natives  of  their  colonies  the  rudiments  of 
modern  agriculture.  Negroes  seem  especially  adapted  for 
raising  cotton,  tobacco  and  coffee.  The  two  latter  are  increas- 
ing on  the  uplands  of  Rhodesia,  Abyssinia,  Liberia  and  East 
Africa.  Through  efforts  of  the  British  Cotton  Growers'  Asso- 
ciation cotton  is  being  introduced  in  all  British  colonies.  Wild 
rubber  of  the  Congo  basin  is  being  supplanted  by  plantation 
rubber. 

Cassava,  rice,  bananas  and  maize  are  the  food  staples 
among  hordes  of  interior  natives,  who  universally  cook  with 
vegetable  oils.  Preparation  of  the  different  oils  gives  employ- 
ment to  large  numbers  of  native  women.  Kaffir  corn,  wheat, 
barley,  durra,  promise  larger  yield.  Immense  grass  lands  for 
pasturage  extend  over  the  veldts.  Raffia  abounds  in  Mada- 
gascar. The  fertile  Nile  valley  yields  long-staple  cotton,  sugar 
cane  and  onions.  Natal  has  expanding  tea  plantations.  Na- 
tive woods,  such  as  mahogany,  cork,  okume  (for  cigar  boxes) , 
rosewood,  yellowwood,  wattle  and  mangrove,  are  of  commer- 
cial importance.  During  the  world  war  France  utilized  her 
African  colonies  as  a  great  kitchen  garden  to  supply  the  com- 
missary. 


RAW  PROD  UCTSOF  AFRICA 


VEGETABLE  OILS 

Extracting  oils  from  vegetable  matter  is  an  old  industry 
For  many  centuries  oleaginous  products  have  formed  import- 
ant articles  of  trade,  and  the  commerce  in  them  today  is  world 
wide.    All  kinds  of  vegetable  oils  are  produced  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Africa,  particularly  the  West  Coast,  many  from  native 
trees  and  fruits  and  others  from  plants  introduced  into  the 
different  sections.    Important  among  these  oils  are  palm,  olive v 
cocoanut,  shea,  clove,  sesame,  mafurra,  cotton-seed,  peanut 
and  kola. 

All  kinds  of  vegetable  oils  are  produced,  especially  on  the 
West  Coast. 

An  estimate  of  exports  of  vegetable  oils,  expressed  or  un- 
expressed from  all  Africa,  is  as  follows: 

Tons 

Palm   Kernel   200,000 

Cotton  Seed 175,000 

Palm  , 150,000         . 

Cocoanut 100,000 

Peanut  50,000 

Sesame 25,000 

Kola  20,000         \ 

Olive   20,000 

Shea  Butter 5,000 

Mafurra 1,000 

Castor  1,000 

Palm  oil  stands  first  in  importance  and  antiquity.  The 
Elais  palm  tree  (Elaeis  guineanis),  or  oil  palm,  grows  60  to 
80  feet  in  height.  At  the  top  of  the  tree  is  a  beautiful  spread 
of  leaves,  in  the  midst  of  which  grow  the  clusters  of  fruit,  re- 
sembling huge  bunches  of  grapes.  These  clusters  contain  from 
300  to  400  nuts  (amund*)  composed  of  a  fleshy  pulp,  and  the 
seeds  or  nuts.  From  the  pulp  is  obtained  a  crude  oil  which 
takes  the  consistency  of  butter,  while  from  the  nut  is  obtained 
the  well-known  edible  oil  of  superior  quality. 

The  High  Congo  District  abounds  also  in  elais;  they 
are  found  in  the  wooded  ravines  of  the  district  of  Stanley- 
Pool  and  the  Kwango.  It  is  rarer  toward  Lake  Leopold  II 
and  the  Lower  Kasai. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OP   AFRICA  H3 


The  elais  has  few  requirements  once  planted;  it 
Returns,  suffices  to  prune  and  smoke  it  once  a  year  to  insure 

regular  production.  A  young  plant  begins  to  pro- 
duce at  the  end  of  the  fifth  year  and  brings  about  five  francs 
per  year. 

Belgian  factories  use  annually  more  than  7,000  tons  of 
palm  oil  derived  mostly  from  the  English  and  German  col- 
onies. The  "African  World"  of  July  13,  1918,  says: 

The  Congo  is  a  land  which  can  be  literally  said  to  sweat 
oil.  The  natural  product  is  badly  handled  by  the  natives.  New 
methods  must  be  introduced,  the  enormous  leases  in  present  pro- 
duction prevented,  and  concentration,  packing  and  sale  regu- 
lated. Trade,  science  and  administration  must  be  brought  to 
co-operate  in  the  solution  of  these  problems. 

In  1915,  Belgian  Congo  exported  11,023,913  kilos  palm 
nuts.  In  1916,  22,391,000  kilos  palm  nuts;  3,852,000  palm  oil. 
In  1917  30,000,000  kilos  palm  nuts. 

Belgian  Congo  exported,  1920,  palm  nuts  to  the  value  of 
58,988,605  francs  (39,457,261  kilos)  and  palm  oil  valued  at 
18,511,341  francs  (7,624,111  kilos). 

Congo  exported  in  1906,  1995  tons  of  palm  oil  and 
Future.     4,895  tons  of  palm  nuts.  Production,  properly  speak- 
ing, is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  natives., 

The  palm  tree  is  found  in  a  region  of  north  Senegal. 
There  are  great  numbers  of  oil  palms  in  Casamance.  The 
trees  are  left  to  destruction  by  fire  and  the  elements  and 
no  provision  is  made  for  their  reproduction.  The  trees  are 
tapped  when  very  young  for  the  wine  they  produce,  and  in 
this  way  numberless  staminate  trees  are  destroyed  or  spoiled. 

Palm  oil  is  extracted  from  the  shell  of  the  nut.  This 
shell  contains  from  60  to  70  per  cent,  oil  according  to  Lanes- 
san.  This  oil  is  edible.  In  Europe  it  is  used  industrially, 
principally. 

The  palm  almond  was  introduced  on  the  French  market 
in  1832. 

Palm  almonds  are  used  in  Senegal  for  soap-making. 

In  1914,  Senegal  exported  1,501,124  kilos  palm  nuto, 
valued  at  $120,400.  In  1915,  palm  kernels  to  the  value  of 
$133,088. 

Palm  nut  oil  figures  in  the  total  exports  from  Freach 
Equatorial  We*t  Africa  in  1913  with  715  tons;  palm  nuts 
were  575,137  kilos,  an  increase  over  the  preceding  year  when 
exports  had  been  only  359,324  kilos  valued  at  116,785  francs. 


RAW   PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


The  English  market  absorbed  nine-tenths  of  these  exports 
with  a  total  of  438,138  kilos.  Germany  follows  next  with  93,- 
429  kilos,  France  with  43,570  kilos. 

The  greater  portion  of  these  exports  of  palm  oil  were  also 
shipped  to  England.  The  total  export  in  1913  was  118,644 
kilos  (with  an  increase  over  the  preceding  year  when  it  was 
only  49,674  kilos  valued  at  27,322  fr.). 

In  1913,  French  West  Africa  exported  69,052,244  pounds 
palm  kernels,  valued  at  $2,917,817;  31,195,555  pounds  palm 
oil,  valued  at  $1,352,429.  Of  these  Dahomey  furnished  47,- 
017,163  pounds  palm  nuts,  valued  at  approximately  $2,050,- 
000;  17,536,684  pounds  palm  oil,  valued  approximately  at 
$1,950,000.  In  1914,  Dahomey  exported  46,724,433  pounds 
palm  nuts,  valued  at  $1,600,000;  14,568,666  pounds  palm  oil, 
valued  at  $719,000.  In  1915,  Dahomey  exported  palm  ker- 
nels to  the  value  of  $1,097,827  (45  per  cent.)  ;  palm  oil  to  the 
value  of  $933,063  (37  per  cent.). 

In  1914,  Ivory  Coast  exported  12,433,429  pounds  palm 
nuts,  9,479,569  pounds  palm  oil. 

Ivory  Coast  exported,  1920,  palm  kernels  to  value  of  11,- 
239,900  francs  and  palm  oil,  18,023,377  francs. 

In  1915,  French  Guinea  exported  palm  kernels  to  the 
value  of  $315,018  (10  per  cent.). 

The  oil  palm  flourishes  in  Sierra  Leone,  from  Freetown 
down  the  coast  as  far  as  San  Paul  de  Loanda.  It  is  the  most 
valuable  tree  of  West  Africa  and  probably  the  most  prolific 
source  of  human  sustenance  in  the  world. 

The  exports  of  palm  kernels  during  the  year  1916  show 
an  increase  in  volume  of  5,692  tons  and  in  value  of  £176,672, 
practically  the  whole  of  which  went  to  the  United  Kingdom. 
In  1916,  Sierra  Leone  exported  45,316  tons  palm  kernels, 
valued  at  $3,400,000;  557,751  gallons  palm  oil,  valued  at 
$260,000. 

Sierra  Leone  exported,  1920,  palm  oil  valued  at  £123,207 
(514,204  gals.)  and  palm  kernals  valued  at  £1,401,676  (50,- 
425  tons). 

The  Gold  Coast,  in  1913,  exported  9,744  tons  palm  ker- 
nels and  860,155  gallons  palm  oil.  In  1915  4,064  tons  palm 
kernels,  and  330,990  gallons  palm  oil.  In  1916  palm  kernels 
to  the  value  of  $429,485. 

Five  thousand  years  ago  the  Egyptians  used  the  "sap  of 
the  oil  palm"  for  embalming  the  bodies  of  their  dead.  The 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  H5 


palm  oil  of  commerce  today  is  not  the  sap  of  the  tree,  but  that 
from  the  rich  kernels  of  the  fruit  of  the  tree,  or  nuts,  which 
in  former  times  were  supposed  to  contain  little  oil. 

In  "Nigeria,  Its  People  and  Problems,"  by  Morel,  we 
read: 

The  deltaic  region  of  the  Niger  is  the  real  home  of  the 
oil  palm  with  its  numerous  and  still  unclassified  varieties,  al- 
though it  extends  some  distance  beyond  in  proportionately  less- 
ening quantities  as  you  push  north.  No  other  tree  in  the  world 
can  compare  with  the  oil  palm  in  the  manifold  benefits  it  con- 
fers upon  masses  of  men.  Occurring  in  tens  of  millions,  repro- 
ducing itself  so  freely  that  the  natives  often  find  it  necessary 
to  thin  out  the  youngest  trees,  it  is  a  source  of  inexhaustible 
wealth  to  the  people,  to  the  country,  to  commerce.  .  .  .  The  col- 
lection, preparation,  transport,  and  sale  of  its  fruits,  both  oil 
and  kernels  for  the  export  trade  is  the  paramount  national  in- 
dustry of  Southern  Nigeria,  in  which  men,  women  and  children 
play  their  allotted  parts.  Beautiful  to  look  upon,  hoary  with  an- 
tiquity. ...  the  oil  palm  is  put  to  endless  uses  by  the  snatives. 

During  the  last  twelve  years,  the  planting  of  more  oil 
palm  trees  has  been  receiving  attention.  Economists  prophesy 
the  profitable  expansion  of  the  palm  oil  trade. 

England  and  Germany  have  led  in  experimental  stations 
for  developing  and  domesticating  the  native  species  of  oil 
palms  and  for  propagating  new  varieties.  Italy  has  also  ac- 
complished something  in  this  line. 

The  natives  climb  the  tree  to  the  height  of  60  or  80  feet, 
then  deal  a  few  vigorous  blows  with  an  axe  to  cut  the  bunches. 
The  fruit  is  picked  up  in  wicker  baskets.  Until  it  is  fully  ripe 
the  fruit  not  only  adheres  to  its  stem,  but  the  porcupine  thorns 
make  separation  difficult.  The  workers  collect  the  clusters 
into  heaps  and  cover  them  with  banana  leaves,  exposing  them 
to  the  sun  from  three  to  six  days  when  the  nuts  rot  away 
from  the  stem.  The  oil  from  the  fibrous  pericarp  is  extracted : 
(1)  by  fermentation;  (2)  by  boiling.  After  steaming  or  boil- 
ing, the  fibre  is  placed  in  an  old  canoe  or  large  mortar  and 
pounded  with  wooden  pestles.  In  either  process  the  oily  fibre 
separates  itself  from  the  hard  inner  stone.  Sometimes  it  is 
thrown  into  a  large  canoe  half  filled  with  water.  As  the  oil 
rises  to  the  surface  it  is  skimmed  off,  boiled  and  strained  for 
market. 

Besides  the  oil  from  the  fibre,  the  inner  kernel  is  also 
valuable.  Palm  kernels  to  the  value  of  £4,000,000  are  ship- 
ped annually  to  Europe  from  Africa. 


H6  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 

From  15  up  to  120  years  the  plantations  give  an  almost 
continuous  supply  of  fruit,  every  tree  bearing  twice  a  year, 
most  abundantly  in  the  rainy  season.  All  the  trees  do  not 
bear  at  the  same  time,  so  that  in  many  equatorial  areas  the 
supply  of  nuts  is  never  exhausted. 

Tapping  of  palms  is  prohibited. 

Palm  oil  averages  in  price  twice  the  value  of  the  palm 
nuts. 

The  term  palm  kernels  is  applied  to  the  soft,  oily  seeds 
contained  in  these  nuts,  and  not  to  the  nuts  themselves.  They 
contain  about  40  per  cent,  of  oil. 

The  relative  value  in  England  of  palm  kernel  oil  and 
palm  oil  is  £8  and  £24  per  ton,  respectively. 

Up  to  within  recent  years,  palm  kernels  were  crushed 
and  the  oil  almost  entirely  used  by  the  soap  trade,  but  chem- 
istry has  now  found  a  process  of  refining  and  making  palm- 
kernel  oil  edible,  as  it  may,  perhaps,  do  some  day  for  palm  oil 
itself,  as  a  base  for  margarine,  for  which  copra  and  ground- 
nut oil  were  formerly  employed. 

Vegetable  oils  are  made  by  crushing  with  powerful  ma- 
chinery the  seeds  or  vegetable  matter  to  be  reduced,  leaving 
behind  an  oil  cake,  which  is  used  for  cattle;  or  these  oils  are 
extracted  by  dissolving  in  chemicals.  In  various  localities 
the  backward  natives  still  crush  the  seeds  by  pounding  in 
mortars. 

The  elais  palm  tree  grows  spontaneously  in 
Where  Found,  the  Congo  in  considerable  quantities;  its  na- 
tural habitat  is  practically  limited  on  the 
north  by  the  fifth  parallel  and  to  the  south  by  the  10th.  The 
whole  tropical  forest  region  seems  favorable  to  it;  only  the 
altitude  stops  its  growth.  It  prefers  sandy  soil  and  it  does 
better  in  the  woods  than  in  savannahs. 

Almost  all  the  palm  oil  exported  now  from  the  Congo  is 
derived  from  the  districts  of  Banana  and  Bonia.  The  natives 
on  account  of  its  market  value  devote  themselves  regularly 
to  this  product. 

In  1913  Gambia  exported  545  tons  palm  kernels;  in  1915 
326  tons,  valued  at  §26,554,  which  was  .01  per  cent,  of  all 
exports  in  this  production.  In  1916  the  export  was  more  than 
double  that  of  the  previous  year. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  H7 


In  1913,  Nigeria  exported  174,718  tons  palm  kernels; 
649  tons  palm  kernel  shells;  5,412  tons  oil  cake;  77,144  cwt. 
palm  kernel  oil;  and  1,661,780  cwt.  all  oils.  In  1915,  72,- 
994  tons  palm  oil;  153,319  tons  palm  kernels.  In  1916,  67,- 
442  tons  palm  oil,  valued  at  $7,013,000;  161,439  tons  palm 
kernels  valued  at  $8,698,000. 

Nigeria  exported,  1920,  palm  kernels  valued  at  £5,717,- 
981,  and  palm  oil  valued  at  £4,677,445. 

Nigerian  Regulations,  Nov.  21,  1918.  Any  tree  found 
infected  with  bud  rot  must  be  trimmed,  under  penalty  of  the 
law. 

In  1913,  Angola  exported  3,759  tons  palm  nuts,  918 
tons  palm  oil.  In  1914,  3,989  tons  palm  nuts,  valued  at  §246,- 
767;  1,348  tons  palm  oil,  valued  at  $104,758. 

In  1915,  Mozambique  exported  palm  nuts  to  the  value  of 
$454,476. 

Kamerun  is  rich  in  oil  palms,  as  is  also  Togoland.  In 
the  southern  part  of  Tunis  are  about  2,138,598  date  palms. 

Exports  in  1911    (Tons) 

Oil  Kernels 

Ivory  Coast  5,800  5,340 

Dahomey   14,400  34,200 

Sierra  Leone   2,902  42,893 

Gold  Coast  , 6,441  13,254 

Nigeria  77,180  176,390 

Kameroon  3,000  13,500 

Togoland  3,050  8,100 

Belgian  Congo 700  2,500 

Total  Out-put  1911  (Tons) 

Oil   113,652 

Kernels 303,112 

It  furnishes  food,  clothing,  drink,  shelter,  baskets, 
Uses  of  cooking  utensils,  tools,  rope,  torches,  musical  in- 
the  Palm,  struments,  lubricant  and  cooking  oils.  It  furnishes 
in  exchange  90  per  cent,  of  purchasing  power. 
Americans  have  invented  a  portable  nut  crusher,  much  facil- 
itating the  work. 

OLIVE  OIL 

Asia  Minor  has  the  credit  of  being  the  original  home  of 
the  olive  (Olea  Europaea),  which  is  the  oldest  of  known 


148  RAW    PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


fruits.  The  tree  is  evergreen  and  very  hardy,  often  reaching 
great  age.  Certain  trees  in  France  and  Italy  are  believed  to 
be  2,000  years  old. 

The  trees  bear  fruit  every  other  year  and  those  giving 
the  best  oil  are  from  January  and  February  crops. 

All  Mediterranean  countries  are  rich  in  olives  of  many 
varieties.  The  average  oil  output  is  from  20  per  cent,  to  50 
per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  fruit.  Oil  is  made  from  fruij 
that  has  ripened  on  the  trees  and  taken  as  quickly  as  possible 
to  the  mill.  On  account  of  the  tendency  of  the  fruit  to  spoil 
within  a  few  hours,  oil  mills  are  scattered  throughout  all  olive 
districts. 

Tunis  leads  other  African  colonies  in  the  manufacture  of 
olive  oil. 

In  1916  there  were  11,750,910  olive  trees  in  Tunis,  which 
produced  8,756,000  gallons  of  oil.  In  1918  about  half  the 
customary  crop  of  olives  was  estimated  for  Tunis.  After 
Italy,  the  principal  buyers  of  Tunisian  olive  oils  were:  Trip- 
oli, 462,491  kilos;  Algeria,  133,944  kilos;  and  Malta,  125,099 
kilos. 

As  to  the  oils  of  olive  residuum,  their  importation  was  null 
in  1913  as  in  1912,  and  their  exportation  about  stationary. 
These  oils  find  their  way,  for  the  most  part,  to  France.  Hol- 
land and  Egypt  bought  appreciable  quantities  in  1913,  285,- 
818  kilos  and  299,361  kilos. 

As  was  shown  in  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Tunis, 
the  production  of  this  oil  is  increasing  and  Tunisian  manufac- 
turing must,  in  consequence,  count  on  the  competition  of  for- 
eign countries — that  of  Italy,  particularly.  And  so  it  pro- 
posed to  raise  the  export  duty  on  this  product  in  the  Regency. 

The  exportation  of  residuum  has,  nevertheless,  de- 
creased; from  915,300  kilos  in  1912,  it  fell  to  724,500  kilos 
in  1913,  in  other  words  decreased  by  190,800  kilos,  which 
fact  more  than  explains  the  47,399  kilos  increase  constituting 
the  exportation  of  oil  extracted  from  this  residuum;  these 
residuums  yield,  in  effect,  from  7  to  10  per  cent,  when  treated 
with  carbon  sulphide. 

In  1913,  Morocco  exported  olive  oil  to  the  value  of  76,-: 
099  francs.  In  1917,  Egypt  exported  181,434,000  pounds  oil 
cake  and  oil  cake  meal,  valued  at  $2,756,287. 

Algeria,  Egypt  and  Morocco  export  olive  oil  in  fluctuat- 
ing quantities  according  to  the  varying  weather  conditions. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  149 


The  olives  are  first  spread  out  and  slight- 
How  Produced —  ly  heated  for  about  twenty-four  hours. 
Cost  of  Production.  The  process  requires  much  skill  and  ex- 
perience, as  even  slight  over-heating  will 

damage  the  product.  The  fruit  is  then  ground  or  crushed  to 
a  paste  uncil  the  oil  begins  to  swim  on  top.  The  paste  goes 
into  round  baskets  made  of  rush  or  alpha  weed,  or  into  sacks 
of  similar  materials,  or  iron  hoops  covered  v/ith  crash,  and  a 
certain  number  of  the  receptacles  are  piled  together  and  sub- 
jected to  gentle  pressure.  This  first  oil  is  of  the  finest  qual- 
ity and  is  called  "Virgin  Oil."  For  the  second  pressing,  more 
force  is  employed,  the  oil  thus  obtained  varying  in  grades 
and  value.  The  paste  is  then  saturated  with  boiling  water, 
and  subjected  to  a  third  and  fourth  pressing  by  hydraulic 
power,  but  the  resultant  oil  is  used  only  for  industrial  pur- 
poses, like  the  manufacture  of  soaps. 

The  oil  as  extracted  by  pressing  contains  a  considerable 
percentage  of  water  and  some  vegetable  matter.  This  may 
be  removed  by  repeated  "settling"  and  "decanting."  This 
product,  skimmed  off  or  "decanted,*"  is  known  as  "unrefined" 
or  crude  Olive  Oil.  If  made  by  one  of  the  old  style  firms,  it 
goes  next  to  underground  cellars  or  vaults,  where  it  is  allowed 
to  settle  for  about  a  fortnight.  One  hundred  pounds  of  olives 
will  yield  an  average  of  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  edible 
oil,  i.  e.,  oil  of  the  first  pressings. 

As  olive  oil  is  very  -sensitive  to  foreign  odors  and  flavors, 
manufacturers  are  obliged  to  use  the  greatest  care  in  hand- 
ling and  storing  it.  The  leading  manufacturers  stock  their 
finished  marketable  oils  in  vaults,  with  walls  of  glass  tiles 
to  facilitate  the  most  scrupulous  cleanliness. 

The  best  test  is  its  color — that  of  a  golden-  or  straw-yel- 
low tint  is  best.  If  it  is  of  greenish  hue,  it  is  either  an  inferior 
grade  or  it  has  not  been  well  refined.  When  fresh  and  of 
good  quality,  it  is  of  sweetish,  nutty  flavor. 

Italian  olive  oil  is  more  fruity  in  flavor  than  the  French, 
and  has  a  more  decided  olive  taste.  There  is  an  increasing 
demand  among  the  best  classes  of  customers  for  the  finer 
grades  of  California  olive  oil,  which  in  flavor  and  purity  alike 
have  attained  the  front  rank. 

Olive  oil  should  not  be  exposed  to  extremes  of  light  or 
temperature.  Light  will  fade  its  color,  heat  will  make  it 
rancid,  and  cold  will  cause  it  to  congeal  and  separate.  Cold 
does  not,  however,  injure  the  quality. 


150  RAW   PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


In  the  average  American  household  olive  oil  is 
Uses  of  used  only  for  salads  and  salad  dressing  but  it  is 
Olive  Oil.  also  excellent  for  frying — fritters,  doughnuts  or 
French  fried  potatoes — it  can  be  heated  to  higher 
temperature  than  either  lard  or  butter  and  it  has  no  disagree- 
able odor  or  flavor.  Nor  is  it  expensive,  for  one  gallon  of  oil 
is  equivalent  to  seven  and  a  half  pounds  of  butter  for  cooking. 

North  African  tribes  use  this  oil  for  anointing  their 
bodies. 

Olive  oil  is,  perhaps,  the  most  popular  of  tropical  veget- 
able oils,  and  holds  a  high  place  among  these  oils  in  com- 
merce. 

COCOANUT  OIL— COPRA 

t 

The  cocoanut  palm  (Cocos  Nucifera),  in  the  countries 
where  it  grows,  is  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  most  useful 
plants.  These  trees,  found  in  the  coast  regions  of  all  tropical 
countries,  grow  very  high,  often  to  a  height  of  100  feet.  At 
the  top  is  a  crown  of  twenty  or  more  feathery  leaves,  each 
twelve  or  fifteen  feet  in  length.  In  the  middle  of  this  cluster 
of  leaves  grows  the  fruit,  from  80  to  200  nuts,  according  to 
the  age  and  health  of  the  tree.  These  nuts  are  enclosed  'in 
thick  fibrous  husks.  The  unripe  nut  is  lined  with  soft  edible 
albumen-like  jelly,  within  which  are  one  or  two  pints  of  clear 
liquid,  a  nourishing  and  refreshing  drink.  When  the  albu- 
men or  kernel  hardens  it  forms  the  white  substance  with 
which  we  are  all  familiar  and  which  we  call  cocoanut.  Wher. 
the  ripe  kernels  are  dried  in  the  sunshine  they  are  called  copra 
and  it  is  copra  that  is  pressed  for  the  oil.  Cocoanut  oil  is 
liquid  at  a  temperature  of  65  degrees  F.  Below  this  it  be- 
comes solidified  and  looks  like  lard. 

The  bearing  period  of  the  cocoanut  tree  is  seventy  to 
eighty  years.  The  first  cocoanuts  may  be  expected  in  about 
six  years  after  the  original  planting.  The  tree  comes  into 
full  bearing  about  the  twelfth  year,  and  from  then  on 
until  its  life  is  ended  it  gives  an  average  annual  yield  of  about 
fifty  nuts.  The  average  yield  of  copra  per  acre  is  about  one- 
third  of  a  ton.  It  was  selling  at  the  beginning  of  the  war 
for  about  $150  a  ton  in  the  London  market.  The  cost  of  op- 
erating a  plantation  of  cocoanuts  is  exceedingly  small. 

Copra  and  cocoanut  oil  are  produced  in  tropical  countries 
around  the  world.  The  output  is  increasing  in  Africa. 


RAW   PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  151 


In  1914,  this  oil  was  extracted  in  Nigeria  from  74,000,- 
COO  pounds  of  copra  and  from  250,000,000  pounds  in  1918. 
A  pound  of  dried  cocoanut  or  "copra"  is  equal  to  the  meat 
of  three  average  cocoanuts,  hence  it  is  important  to  export 
cocoanut  meat  in  this  form  to  save  tonnage. 

German  East  Africa  has  millions  of  cocoanut  trees.  In 
1911  German  East  Africa  exported  11,950,070  pounds  of  co- 
pra, valued  at 439,093  marks;  and  in  1912,  9,351,079  pounds 
valued  at  372,003  m. 

Mozambique  has  1,500,000  cocoanut  trees,  which  pro- 
duce more  oil  kernels  and  copra  than  can  be  consumed  local- 
ly. In  1915  Mozambique  exported  copra  to  the  value  of  $413,- 
218.  This  export  trade  was  formerly  chiefly  with  Germany. 

In  1915,  the  Congo  exported  11,024  tons  cocoanuts;  1916, 
27,425  tons;  1917,  35,000  tons. 

Cocoanut  products  are  among  the  chief  of  Angola.  In 
1898,  cocoanuts  were  exported  to  the  value  of  351,500  francs, 
since  which  time  the  trade  has  increased. 

At  one  time  traffic  in  cocoanut  products  was  important 
in  Senegal.  Senegal  soil  and  climate  favor  cocoanut  cultiva- 
tion to  such  an  extent  that  it  could  be  made  a  very  paying 
business.  The  yield  of  the  nuts  in  this  region  amounts  to 
over  35  per  cent.  oil. 

African  islands  are  all  rich  in  oil  production.  In  1915, 
Mauritius  exported  cocoanut  oil  to  the  value  of  $29,435,  and 
in  1916,  to  the  value  of  $46,000. 

The  Literary  Digest  says:  "The  uses  of  the  cocoanut 
Uses,  tree  and  its  fruit  are  many.  To  the  native  of  these 
islands  it  may  be  said  to  provide  all  the  necessaries  of 
life — food,  shelter  and  clothing.  The  timber  may  be  used  as 
logs  for  bridging  streams,  and  for  house-building.  The  plaited 
leaves  are  used  for  thatching  the  roofs.  They  are  made  into 
beds  to  sleep  on,  into  mats  for  the  floor,  and  they  serve  as 
plates  to  eat  from.  Beautiful  baskets  and  fans  are  made  of 
the  leaves.  The  flesh  of  the  nut  forms  an  excellent  and  nour- 
ishing food;  it  produces  oil  for  cooking,  for  mixing  native 
puddings,  for  lighting  the  house,  and  anointing  the  body.  The 
milk  forms  a  palatable  and  refreshing  drink.  An  industry 
of  no  little  importance  among  the  natives  of  the  different  isl- 
ands is  the  manufacture  of  twine,  known  as  sennet,  from  the 
husk  of  the  nuts.  This  material  is  used  chiefly  to  tie  the  tim- 
bers together  in  construction  of  native  houses,  no  nails  being 


152  RAW   PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


used  in  such  work.  Twine  and  rope  of  any  size  up  to  towing 
line  are  made  from  the  fibre.  The  'cabbage/  as  the  soft  cen- 
tral part  of  the  head  of  the  cocoanut-palm  is  called,  can  be 
made  into  a  delicious  salad.  Some  of  the  natives  of  the  South 
Seas  make  what  is  called  cocoanut  'toddy'  out  of  the  nuts." 

On  account  of  the  shortage  of  fats,  the  cocoanut  and  its 
products  are  coming  into  new  prominence  in  the  United 
States.  Importation  into  America  of  copra  grew  from  56 
million  pounds  in  1914  to  90  million  pounds  in  1915,  110  mil- 
lion pounds  in  1916,  247  million  pounds  in  1917,  and  550  mil- 
lion pounds  is  estimated  for  1918. 

"The  preparation  of  the  copra  for  market 
How  Produced,  is  very  simple.  The  nuts  are  allowed  to  fall 
naturally,  and  at  intervals  of  once  a  month, 
and  sometimes  not  oftener  than  once  every  two  months,  the 
nuts  are  collected  into  piles  upon  the  ground.  Each  pile  con- 
tains about  100  nuts.  The  laborers  then  split  the  nuts  open 
lengthwise  with  a  blow  from  an  ax.  The  kernels  are  removed 
with*two  or  three  dexterous  cuts  of  a  small  knife.  This  is 
the  copra  in  its  raw  state.  The  ordinary  daily  task  of  each 
laborer  is  to  split  and  clean  six  hundred  cocoanuts.  The 
kernels  are  exposed  to  the  sun  on  shallow  layers  of  trays,  and 
protection  is  provided  from  showers  and  from  the  heavy  dews 
at  night.  This  occupies  from  three  to  six  days,  depending 
on  the  climatic  conditions.  The  establishment  of  a  cocoanut 
plantation,  We  are  told,  is  an  interesting  process.  The  cost 
varies  according  to  local  conditions.  Ordinarily,  it  will  run 
close  to  $100  per  acre,  including  clearing  the  land  of  under- 
brush and  keeping  it  clear.  It  also  includes  the  cost  price  of 
the  wild  land,  which  ranges  from  $1  to  $5  per  acre." 

CASTOR  OIL 

Castor  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seed  of  a  plant  (Ricinus 
communis).  The  seeds  are  more  than  half  oil. 

The  castor  oil  plant  has  a  wide  range  in  latitude,  but  as 
an  economic  plant  it  is  limited  by  the  fact  that  in  the  higher 
latitudes  its  seeds  will  not  ripen,  and  the  yield  of  oil  is  in- 
ferior to  that  obtained  in  warm  climates.  Generally,  the  plant) 
may  be  said  to  require  similar  climatic  conditions  to  maize, 
but  with  a  greater  amount  of  heat. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  153 


The  castor-oil  plant  is  perennial.  It  is  injured  by  hard 
frosts  and  prolonged  cold.  In  North  Africa  it  thrives  where- 
ever  the  cotton-plant  does  well.  It  would  do  well  all  along 
the  coast,  and  in  the  south  in  the  Sahara  district,  wherever 
it  is  assured  of  sufficient  moisture  during  the  summer  growing 
period. 

In  French  North  Africa,  where  the  plant  grows  wild,  its 
cultivation  was  not  seriously  undertaken  until  1916.  It  is  es- 
timated that  the  crop  for  1917  in  Algiers  amounted  to  3,000 
tons,  and  to  5,000  to  10,000  tons  in  Morocco.  In  Madagas- 
car and  French  West  Africa  the  plant  grows  freely.  Both 
countries  are  now  beginning  to  develop  plantations. 

Aviation  has  increased  the  demand  for  castor  oil,  as  a 
very  viscous  lubricant.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap, 
leather,  cloth  and  celluloid,  for  lighting,  combustion,  medi- 
cine, and,  in  China,  for  food. 

The  plant  is  a  native  of  Senegal,  but  has  not  prospered 
there,  notwithstanding  efforts  to  cultivate  it.  Export  was 
9,405  kilos  in  1891;  now  abandoned. 

The  plant  yields  30  to  35  per  cent,  of  oil. 

VEGETABLE  OILS— SESAME 

Sesame  (Sesamum  Indicum)  is  a  plant  originating  in, 
Tropical  Asia  and  cultivated  from  time  immemorial  for  its 
seeds,  which  produce  an  edible  oil  known  in  commerce  as 
gingli.  China,  India,  Turkey  and  Persia  are  the  principal 
sources  of  production,  but  a  considerable  quantity  is  export- 
ed from  Africa.  The  colonies  raising  it  are  German  East  Africa 
Nigeria,  French  Guinea,  Abyssinia  and  Senegal.  The  seed 
yields  under  cold  pressure  55  per  cent,  of  oil,  of  a  clear  yeK 
low  color,  sometimes  aromatic  and  bitter.  The  residuum  ia 
subjected  to  hot  pressure  and  yields  a  small  amount  of  oil 
for  making  scteps  and  candles. 

In  1913,  French  West  Africa  exported  1,833,436  pounds; 
sesame,  valued  at  $32,369. 

In  1914,  Upper  Senegal  and  Niger  exported  57,750 
pounds  sesame,  valued  at  $1,100. 

OTHER  OILS 

Peanut  oil  is  obtained  from  the  peanut  (Arachis  hypo- 
gaea).  It  is  raised  extensively  in  West  Africa,  India  and 
France. 


154  RAW    PRODUCTS    OF    AFRICA 


Peanut  oil  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  olive  oil,  for  peanut 
butter  and  for  soap. 

Peanuts  are  the  principal  export  of  Senegal.  In  1914, 
Upper  Senegal  and  Niger  exported  6,480,896  pounds  ara~ 
chides,  valued  at  $141,400;  and  5,006,656  pounds  peanuts, 
valued  at  $107,000. 

At  present  ground  nuts  and  sunflower  seeds  are  the  only 
oil  seeds  produced  commercially  in  Rhodesia,  but  experi- 
ments conducted  at  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Salisbury,  Southern  Rhodesia,  have  indicated  that  all  other 
oil  seeds,  including  linseed,  sesame  seed,  niger  seed,  and  Mai- 
da  sativa  seed  (known  locally  as  "Chile  oil  seed")  may  be 
grown  successfully. 

Morocco  exported,  1920,  linseed  to  the  value  of  24,944,- 
227  francs. 

Arachide  is  a  small  papilionaceous  plant  which  bears 
two  or  three  times  a  year.  The  fruit  is  contained  in  an  elong- 
ated pod  which  grows  under  the  soil  and  encloses  two  or, 
three  seeds  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut.  It  yields  from  28  pei| 
cent,  to  32  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  an  excellent  edible  oi1 
which  serves  as  a  substitute  for  olive  oil.  The  crop  varies 
from  80  to  100  hectoliters  per  hectare.  In  1905  the  Congo 
state  exported  49,684  kilograms  of  arachides. 

Kapok  seed,  from  the  Javanese  cotton  fibre  tree,  con- 
tains about  20  per  cent,  of  oil,  similar  to  cotton-seed  oil,  and 
is  especially  used  for  food  for  animals. 

According  to  experiments  made  at  Cantoi,  Kapok  is  a 
hardy  plant  and  has  great  resistance  against  droughts.  The 
wood  is  soft  and  of  little  value.  Kapok  is  produced  princi- 
pally at  Giava  and  from  there  exported  to  Olanda. 

The  Eastern  Asiatic  Company,  a  Danish  concern  inter- 
ested in  the  extraction  of  oils  from  vegetable  matter,  has  se- 
cured a  stretch  of  land  15,000  acres  in  extent  in  the  Water- 
berg  district  of  the  Transvaal.  Cotton,  soya  beans,  linseed, 
ground  nuts,  maize  and  castor  oil  plants  will  be  grown,  while 
it  is  intended  further  to  experiment  with  jute.  The  entire 
area  will  be  put  under  cultivation,  and  a  European  expert 
will  direct  the  principal  operations  of  the  concern. 

Cotton  seed  oil  is  treated  under  chapter  on  Cotton. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  155 


SHEA  NUTS 

The  shea  nut  grows  on  a  West  African  tree  (Bassia  par- 
kii),  generally  known  as  the  karite  tree,  which  has  become 
almost  as  valuable  as  the  palm  for  its  oil. 

Trees  have  been  known  to  bear  20,000  nuts.  The  fresh 
nut  has  the  size  and  shape  of  a  walnut,  but  is  covered  with 
a  smooth  skin  resembling  that  of  a  Spanish  chestnut.  Inside 
this  is  the  soft  kernel,  yellow  when  fresh  and  chocolate  col- 
ored when  dry,  containing  a  large  proportion  of  fatty  matter, 
which,  when  extracted,  is  called  shea  butter.  The  nuts,  di- 
vested of  the  outer  pulp  covering,  are  dried  in  sunshine  or 
by  fire  and  the  skin  removed.  The  percentage  of  butter  ex- 
tracted is  17  per  cent,  of  the  kernel ;  by  using  machinery  it 
could  be  made  36  per  cent. 

One  native  in  one  day  can  collect  an  average  of  100 
pounds  of  shea  fruit.  It  appears  best  commercially,  to  buy 
the  shelled  nuts  from  the  natives  and  from  them  to  make  the 
butter  for  shipment  as  butter  takes  up  less  space.  The  butter 
is  exported  in  palm  oil  casks  from  Northern  Nigeria.  The 
principal  exporters  are  at  Lagos,  Southern  Nigeria,  West  Af- 
rica. The  karite  tree  is  easily  cultivated  and  in  its  produc- 
tion lies  the  possibility  of  a  great  trade.  Shea  butter  is  es- 
pecially popular  with  the  Mohammedans  and  non-meat 
eaters  generally. 

Karite  trees  flourish  in  Senegal  but  do  not 
Where  Found,  pay  as  well  as  they  should  owing  to  the  crude 

method  used  by  the  natives  in  making  the 
shea  butter.  It  is  stated  that  in  Senegal  the  shea  nuts  could 
be  made  to  give  40  per  cent,  of  butter  instead  of  11  per  cent. 
as  is  the  general  average  at  present  and  there  could  be  an 
easy  annual  export  of  10,000  tons. 

In  1915,  Nigeria  exported  10,085  shea  products,  valued 
at  $345,000.  In  1916,  3,512  shea  products,  valued  at  $160,- 
000. 

Above  Zagande  is  the  "Karite"  region,  extending 
throughout  Soudan  and  as  far  as  the  Nile. 

In  1913,  French  West  Africa  exported  1,046,713  pounds 
of  shea  nuts,  valued  at  $27,000.  Dahomey  exported  373,650 
pounds  of  shea  butter,  valued  at  $15,500.  In  1914,  Dahomey 
exported  172,123  pounds  of  shea  butter,  valued  at  $7,100. 


156  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


Native  women  gather  shea  nuts  from  the 
How  Produced,  trees  by  knocking  them  off.  They  are  dried 

and  crushed  in  mortars,  forming  a  damp 
flour,  which  is  again  dried  and  crushed.  It  is  then  boiled, 
when  butter  appears  on  the  surface.  The  cake  remains  at 
the  bottom.  The  butter  is  then  placed  in  another  vessel  and 
kneaded  into  conical  cakes  weighing  from  4  to  &y%  pounds. 
These  are  wrapped  in  n'taba  leaves,  a  specimen  of  the  helio- 
trope, and  sent  to  market. 

The   natives   use   shea   butter  for   cooking,   lighting, 
Uses,     making  soap,  and  for1  massaging.   Purified,  it  is  edible 

alone  or  suitable  for  use  in  making  artifical  cows'  but 
ter.    It  is  also  used  extensively  in  chocolate  manufacture  and 
in  confections  generally,  as  well  as  for  making  various  kinds 
of  soap.     The  cake  is  used  for  cattle  and  for  fertilizer. 

MANIOC,  CASSAVA,  TAPIOCA 

Manioc  or  Cassava  (Manihot  utilissima)  is  a  large,  woody 
tropical  plant  whose  roots  furnish  the  Cassava-starch  and  tap- 
ioca of  commerce.  The  roots,  which  may  reach  eight  inches 
in  diameter  and  four  feet  in  length,  grow  in  clusters  often 
weighing  30  pounds. 

The  "sweet"  tapioca,  containing  82  per  cent  of  starch, 
is  preferred;  but  the  "bitter"  is  equally  valuable  for  sizing, 
yeast,  glazing  twine,  etc. 

Prussic  acid  is  found  in  the  roots;  it  is  easily  removed 
by  heat  and  water. 

The  plant  is  indigenous  to  South  America.  It  is  a  very 
important  food,  the  roots  being  stewed,  fried  or  roasted;  the 
sweet  variety  in  many  places  takes  the  place  potatoes  hold 
in  other  localities.  Ground  into  flour,  grated,,  or  dried,  this 
root  furnishes  bread  stuff.  The  tapioca  most  commonly  known 
to  commerce  as  food  comes  in  the  form  of  yellowish  or  brown- 
ish white  flakes.  The  food  most  commonly  known  in  civilized 
countries,  made  from  tapioca,  is  a  delicious  pudding.  Dex- 
trine and  grape  sugar  are  also  produced  from  the  root,  which 
are  used  as  substitutes  for  true  sugar  and  syrups,  and  are  much 
used  in  confectionery. 

Tapioca  or  manioc  is  cultivated  in  many  coun- 
Countries.     tries  of  Africa  where  it  is  a  great  favorite  with 
natives  and  whites. 


RAW  PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  157 


In  Senegal,  manioc  is  not  exported,  but  is  widely  used 
by  the  natives  as  food.  The  dry  climate  is  not  well  adapted 
to  ihe  cultivation,  unless  a  system  of  irrigation  of  pure  water 
can  be  installed. 

In  Congo,  manioc  is  the  chief  food  of  the  negroes,  who 
raise  both  the  poisonous  and  non-poisonous  varieties.  Manioc 
was  introduced  into  Belgian  Congo  by  traders  from  America 
more  than  two  centuries  ago.  In  Kasai  the  output  is  40  tons 
per  hectare,  or  enough  to  feed  40  negroes  a  year. 

In  Rhodesia,  manioc  grows  well,  and  considerable  atten- 
tion is  being  paid  to  its  cultivation.  Both  the  climate  and,  the 
soil  are  well  suited  for  its  growth.  Besides  its  human  uses 
the  roots  are  fed  to  stock.  For  removing  the  poison  for  local 
use,  the  natives  dig  manioc  tubers,  which  they  bury  in  a 
stream  or  pool  for  a  few  days  until  the  poison  is  washed  out. 

Starch  made  from  Rhodesian  manioc  has  been  pro- 
nounced good,  and  the  tapioca  prepared  for  food  more  than 
fair,  so  that  cultivation  of  this  product  has  great  promise. 

Manioc  is  one  of  the  most  extensively  cultivated  plants 
in  Madagascar;  it  is  very  useful  for  the  farmer  as  it  grows 
in  any  soil.  The  output  is  from  10  to  20  tons  per  hectare 
from  good  soil.  The  natives  cultivate  it  to  sell  to  f ecula  works 
or  for  their  own  consumption  or  for  their  animals.  Its  culti- 
vation is  increasing,  and  fecula  works  are  multiplying  in  the 
colony.  Manioc  sells  at  from  17  to  27  francs  per  ton.  In  1912, 
184,220  hectares  were  planted  in  manioc. 

Madagascar  raised  800,700  tons  of  manioc  In  1918. 
Exports  from  Madagascar 

Tons  Tons 

Years  Flour  Fecula 

1913  611  1,166 

1914  685  333 

1915  1,255  1,726 

1916  3,067  2,585 

Manioc  is  grown  in  all  tropical  countries.     Africa 

Outlook,  has  no  special  advantage  over  any  other  and  has 
not  exported  any  great  quantity.  New  factories 
for  extracting  fecula  are  steadily  being  erected,  and  the  in- 
creasing demand  for  tapioca  should  result  in  a  greater  output 
from  Africa.  The  United  States'  supply  comes  from  South 
America  and  the  East  Indies  at  present,  except  a  small  amount 
grown  in  Florida. 


158  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


BARLEY 

Barley  (Hordeum  sativum)  is  an  important  genus  of  the 
cereal  plants  belonging  chiefly  to  temperate  regions,  but  its 
limits  extend  farther  north  and  south  than  other  cereal  grains. 

There  are  four  distinct  species  of  barley  cultivated  for 
the  grain.  These  are  common,  or  two-rowed  barley  (Hordeum 
distichum),  Bere  or  Bigg  (Hordeum  vulgare),  six-rowed  bar- 
ley (Hordeum  hextastichum),  and  fan,  spratt,  or  battledore 
barley  (Hordeum  zeocriton).  Barley  is  said  by  some  author- 
ities to  be  the  most  hardy  of  all  grains.  Pliny  claimed  it  as 
the  oldest  of  grains,  and  varieties  have  been  found  in  deposits 
in  Switzerland  belonging  to  the  Stone  Age.  We  see  it  often 
braided  into  the  hair  of  Ceres  or  represented  on  coins.  In 
Exodus  10:31:  "And  the  flax  and  the  barley  was  smitten;  for 
the  barley  was  in  the  ear,  and  the  flax  was  boiled." 

Barley  is  cultivated  much  as  wheat  and  oth- 
How  Produced,  er  grains.  When  ripe  the  stalks  are  cut,  af- 
ter which  the  grain  is  removed  while  the 
straw  is  utilized  for  other  purposes.  The  grain  is  further  sep- 
arated from  the  chaff,  when  it  is  called  "pot-barley".  Still 
further  reduced  it  becomes  the  barley  of  domestic  use,  known 
as  "pearl  barley". 

As  human  food  barley  for  many  years  was  not  in 
Uses,  great  favor  generally,  except  for  soup  and  gruel,  but 

it  has  come  back  to  popularity.  Manufacturers  of 
breakfast  foods  and  fancy  biscuits  and  crackers  now  use  it  a 
great  deal.  It  is  also  used  in  medicines,  for  febrile  and  in- 
inflammatory  disorders. 

The  straw  is  used  in  making  baskets,  matting,  chair- 
seats,  rope,  paper  and  for  thatching.  It  is  also  used  for  brew- 
ing beer,  for  fodder,  mixed  with  other  fodder  materials,  and 
as  fertilizer. 

Barley  is  a  very  important  world  crop,  amounting  in  1915 
to  1,293,916,000  bushels. 

Barley  is  raised  in  all  the  northern  countries  of  Africa, 
where  it  is  one  of  the  chief  food  grains  for  man  and  beast. 
It  is  also  an  important  product  of  many  of  the  islands,  riot- 
ably  the  Canaries.  Much  of  the  crop  is  exported  to  England 
for  making  appetizing  beverages. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  159 


In  1913,  Morocco  exported  barley  to  the  value  of  $300,- 
000;  in  1915,  to  the  value  of  $2,568,791;  in  1916,  to  the  value 
of  $3,464,450 — one-fourth  of  entire  exports. 

Morocco  exported,  1920,  barley  to  the  value  of  24,192,- 
485  francs. 

In  1913  Algeria  exported  barley  to  the  value  of  $4,104,- 
917;  in  1914,  to  the  value  of  $2,919,511;  in  1915,  Algeria 
produced  36,789  metric  tons  barley,  valued  at  $1,420,094;  in 
1916,  170,589  metric  tons,  valued  at  $6,584,581.  In  this  year 
Algeria  had  3,009,000  acres  in  barley.  In  1918,  Algeria  had 
2,794,000  acres  in  barley,  with  a  production  of  58,422,000 
bushels. 

Algeria,  1921,  had  2,513,943  acres  in  barley  yielding  1,- 
099,300  tons. 

In  1916,  Tunis  had  1,247,265  acres  in  barley,  producing 
297,000  tons,  or  4,914,000  bushels;  in  1917,  165,000  tons  bar- 
ley; in  1918,  1,238,000  acres  in  barley,  producing  9,186,000 
bushels. 

The  production  of  barley  in  Tunis  was  243,000  tons  for 
1921. 

In  Tripolitania  barley  is  the  chief  food  supply  and  is  so 
extensively  used  in  the  country  that  the  exports  are  negli- 
gible. 

In  Egypt,  barley  in  some  of  the  provinces  is  the  chief 
grain  crop. 

In  1916,  Egypt  had  438,830  acres  in  barley,  with  a  crop 
of  287,037  metric  tons,  or  13,161,000  bushels.  In  1918,  Egypt 
had  336,000  acres  in  barley,  with  a  crop  of  9,871,000  bushels. 

Egypt,  1920,  had  under  cultivation  in  barley  340,231 
acres  yielding  227,489  tons. 

Barley  cultivation  is  increasing  in  Abyssinia,  where  it 
grows  well,  and  furnishes  a  chief  supply  of  food. 

Barley  has  not  reached  the  state  of  cultivation  in  South 
African  countries  that  it  has  in  the  north,  but  has  been  found 
adaptable  to  many  localities.  In  1916  the  Union  of  South 
Africa  had  64,000  acres  in  barley.  In  1918  it  had  58,000 
acres. 

MILLET 

Millet  (Panicum  miliaceum)  means  thousand,  so  named 
for  its  great  fertility.  Millet  is  believed  to  be  a  native  of 
Egypt  and  of  Arabia,  where  it  has  been  cultivated  from  pre- 


160  RAW  PRODUCT  SOF  AFRICA 


historic  times.  Millet  is  an  annual  which  grows  three  or  four 
feet  high,  and  requires  rich,  friable  soil.  It  is  principally  cul- 
tivated in  India,  southern  Europe  and  northern  Africa. 

Some  of  the  principal  kinds  of  millet  are  German,  Pol- 
ish and  Indian -millet,  European  broomcorn  millet  (Panicurn 
miliaceum)  and  Foxtail  millet  (Setaria  italica). 

This  grain  is  important  in  native  commerce,  exchanged 
for  other  commodities  and  in  some  localities  is  a  medium  of 
exchange. 

Millet  of  Senegal  constitutes  the  princi- 

Where  Produced,     pal   foodstuff   of   the   native    population. 

Much  is  exported  to  France.     In  all. the 

colonies,  millet  is  worth  from  5  to  15  centimes  per  kilogram. 

From  1890  to  1899  inclusive,  1,032,448  kilograms,  or  a 
yearly  average  of  103,245  kilograms,  were  exported. 

The  average  annual  production  of  later  years  has  been 
1,594,716  pounds,  avoirdupois. 

A  local  dish  called  dumboy,  made  principally  of  millet, 
constitutes  the  chief  article  of  diet  in  parts  of  West  Africa. 

In  French  Equatoral  Africa  millet  has  an  important  place, 
as  the  following  item  from  a  French  report  indicates :  "Mil- 
let is  the  mainstay  of  the  majority  of  our  subjects.  It  grows 
in  the  most  varied  soils.  It  yields  a  good  crop.  At  the  old 
experimental  farm  in  Baol,  the  yield  was  four  tons  per  hec- 
tare when  the  plow  was  used.  One  ton  suffices  for  the  sub- 
sistence of  three  persons  for  one  year.  Millet  yields  from 
40  to  70  per  cent,  alcohol.  Starch  is  also  made  from  it.  For 
the  needs  of  a  local  industry,  it  could  be  distilled  in  the  pro- 
ducing country.  The  Bambaras  make  a  kind  of  millet  beer 
(dolo)  with  which  they  intoxicate  themselves  copiously. 
Sometimes  honey  is  added  to  it  for  the  purpose  of  increasing 
its  alcoholic  content." 

Millet  is  raised  extensively  in  the  Belgian  Congo,  chiefly 
for  provender. 

Millet  is  very  nutritious  and  is  largely  used  in  the 
U*es.  form  of  groats.  Mixed  with  wheat  flour  it  makes  an 
excellent  bread.  When  ground,  it  yields  60  per  cent, 
flour  and  40  per  cent,  alcohol.  It  is  chiefly  exported  for  poul- 
try and  caged  birds.  The  chief  use  of  millet  in  most  countries 
where  it  is  raised  is  for  cattle  food,  both  as  grain  and  fodder. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  161 


With  ashes  from  millet  stems  the  negroes  make  soap; 
;30  make  dye  from  the  bark  of  the  stems.    From  the 
straw  they  make  hats  and  mats  and  use  it  as  thatch. 

DURRA 

Durra,  Guinea  corn  or  Turkish  millet  (Sorghum  vulgare) 

is  believed  to  have  originated  in  India.     It  grows  in  all  the 
northern  and  tropical  countries  of  Africa. 

In  the  Soudan  the  principal  food  of  the  natives  is  durra, 
grown  in  very  primitive  fashion.  The  women  grind  it  into  a 
coarse  meal  which  is  very  nutritious. 

The  natives  of  Somaliland  raise  durra  along  the  rivers. 

Nigerian  natives  formerly  raised  much  durra,  but  Amer- 
ican maize  seems  to  be  supplanting  the  native  product- 

In  addition  to  being  so  highly  prized  by  African  natives 
as  food,  durra  is  also  widely  used  as  cattle  food  and  for  poul- 
try. 

OATS 

Oats  (Avena  sativa)  belong  to  the  genus  Avenese  of  the 
order  of  grasses.  This  family  contains  about  fifty  species. 
The  cultivated  oat  is  thought  to  have  originated  from  Avena 
fatua  or  "wild-oat,"  of  which  several  species  exist  in  western 
Asia  and  southern  Europe,  and  from  which  a  great  variety 
has  been  developed,  notably  the  potato-oat,  white  Tartarian 
and  Scotch  oat. 

The  cultivated  oat  seems  to  have  appeared  first  in  Cen- 
tral Europe.  Pliny  alludes  to  bread  made  of  oats  by  the 
ancient  Germans.  This  grain  was  abundant  in  Asia  Minor 
in  very  early  tihies,  where  it  was  made  into  bread  and  used 
for  feeding  horses. 

The  oat  is  a  hardy  grain  and  grows  through  a  wide 
range  of  latitude,  but  gives  greatest  results  in  temperate  cli- 
mates. 

The  world  supply  of  oats  in  1915  was  3,532,470,000  bush- 
els. In  Algeria,  especially,  the  cultivation  of  oats  has  been  an 
important  industry  for  many  years. 

In  1913,  Algeria  exported  oats  to  the  value  of  $2,307,- 
508;  in  1914,  to  the  value  of  $2,593,727;  in  1915,  58,216  met- 
ric tons  oats,  valued  at  $2,447,292.  In  1916,  Algeria  had  536,- 


162  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


000  acres  in  oats,  which  produced  13,140,000  bushels,  valued 
at  $4,789,488.  In  1917,  682,000  acres  in  oats,  which  pro- 
duced 16,125,000  bushels.  In  1918,  558,000  acres  in  oats, 
with  a  production  of  26,564,000  bushels. 

Algeria,  1921,  had  573,855  acres  in  oats  yielding  170,- 
650  tons. 

Tunis  also  raises  oats  rather  extensively.  In  1916,  164,000 
acres  were  in  oats,  with  a  production  of  2,067,000  bushels. 
In  1917,  124,000  acres  in  oats,  with  a  production  of  3,996,000 
bushels.  In  1918  148,000  acres  in  oats,  with  a  production  of 
3,858,000  bushels. 

In  the  southern  part  of  Africa  oats  thrive. 

In  1917,  the  Union  of  South  Africa  had  250,000  acres  in 
oats,  with  a  yield  of  6,928,000  bushels.  In  1918,  257,000 
acres. 

The  chief  use  is  that  of  feeding  horses ;  and  the  great 
Uses,  demand  for  this  purpose  has  been  so  widespread  that 

there  were  more  oats  raised  than  either  wheat  or 
corn.  A  horse  is  said  to  consume  as  much  oats  in  three  weeks 
as  a  man  consumes  in  a  year. 

Oat  meal,  which  is  not  meal,  but  crushed  oats,  is  made 
from  kiln-dried  grain  from  which  the  husks  have  been  re- 
moved. Porridge  made  from  oat-meal  is  eaten  in  all  coun- 
tries. Mixed  with  Indian  corn-meal  the  porridge  is  then 
known  as  "stirabout".  Groats  are  the  whole  kernels  from 
which  the  Kusk  has  been  removed.  Ground  into  meal  or 
flour  oats  make  very  good  flat  cakes  or  biscuit,  but  cannot 
easily  be  made  into  bread  because  of  the  difficulty  in  ruptur- 
ing the  starch  grains.  Oats  contain  a  higher  percentage  of 
albuminoids  than  any  other  grain  and  less  of  starch.  It  has 
more  sugar,  fats  and  salts  than  wheat. 

WHEAT 

Wheat  (Triticum  sativuin)  is  the  most  nutritious  of  the 
cereals.  As  a  world  cereal  it  ranks  next  to  rice  in  production ; 
aside  from  a  few  regions  where  nee  is  almost  the  exclusive 
food,  wheat  takes  first  rank.  It  is  the  chief  food  of  white 
races  in  all  continents. 


RAW    PRODUCTS   OF    AFRICA  163 


The  history  of  wheat  goes  back  to  very  ancient  times 
and  in  old  records  is  often  referred  to  as  "corn,"  as  all  cer- 
eals were  once  designated.  The  grain  now  universally  known 
as  corn  was  not  then  known  to  countries  in  the  Eastern 
hemisphere. 

Wheat  grows  best  in  temperate  climates  but  is  success- 
fully raised  also  in  semi-tropical  latitudes,  especially  in  the 
high  regions  of  these  countries.  The  United  States  is  the 
greatest  wheat-producing  country.  Russia  standing  next  and 
Hungary  third.  This  cereal  is  grown  in  all  the  temperate 
countries  of  Africa  and  thrives  particularly  in.  the  plateau 
regions. 

Wheat  is  "red"  or  "white,"  "winter"  or  "spring,"  "hard" 
or  "soft."  There  are  many  varieties. 

Of  the  world's  production  of  wheat  for  1915,  given  as  3,- 
813,000,000  bushels,  the  United  States  and  Russia  each  sup- 
plied 19  per  cent.  The  total  for  all  Africa  was  probably  not 
over  2  per  cent.  It  is  grown  considerably  in  the  French  prov- 
inces of  Northern  Africa  and  is  increasing  in  the  Union  of 
South  Africa.  Egypt  was  an  important  wheat  producer  in 
ancient  times.  Egyptian  wheat  is  entirely  raised  by  irrigation 
from  the  Nile  river. 

In  Egypt  farmers  use  plows  improvised  from  wooden 
stumps  and  drawn  by  donkeys,  camels,  bullocks  and  mules. 
However,  as  methods  improve  crops  improve  also.  The  coun- 
try exports  wheat  every  year.  In  1915,  Egypt  raised  38,667,- 
666  bushels;  in  1916,  Egypt  had  1,447,163  acres  in  wheat, 
with  a  yield  of  36,543,000  bushels;  in  1917  the  amount  of 
wheat  raised  was  29,834,000  bushels.  The  acreage  in  1918 
was  1,286,000  with  a  production  of  32,555,000  bushels. 

Egypt,  1920,  had  under  cultivation  in  wheat  1,190,200 
acres  yielding  863,022  tons. 

During  1916,  Tunis  had  1,239,734  acres  in  wheat,  with 
a  production  of  375,400  tons;  in  1918,  1,413,000  acres  pro- 
ducing 8,451,000  bushels. 

Tunis  had  1,334,415  acres  in  wheat,  1920,  yielding  142,- 
300  tons,  which  was  increased  in  1921  to  250,000  tons. 

Algeria  raises  hard  wheat,  largely  used  in  making  mac- 
aroni. 


164  RAW    PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


For  1913,  Algeria  exported  1,000,000  pounds  of  wheat 
valued  at  $6,996,829,  and  wheat  flour  to  the  value  of  $1,001,- 
091 ;  in  1915,  113,423  metric  tons  wheat,  valued  at  $6,759,000  ; 
17,690  metric  tons  wheat  flour,  valued,  at  $1,450,974;  3,882 
metric  tons  crushed  wheat,  valued  at  $337,171;  9,128  metric 
tons  wheat  bran,  valued  at  $229,091. 

Algeria,  1921,  had  2,904,811  acres  in  wheat  yielding  1,- 
028,900  tons. 

The  production  of  wheat  in  South  Africa  during  the  five 
years  1909-1913  averaged  5  per  cent,  of  the  whole  produc- 
tion of  the  British  Empire.  During  the  war  a  much  larger 
production  was  forced. 

In  1916  the  Union  of  South  Africa  had  785,000  acres  in 
wheat,  which  produced  6,477,000  bushels;  in  1917  it  pro- 
duced 4,790,000  bushels  of  wheat,  and  exported  16,244,024 
pounds  of  flour,  valued  at  $618,002.  In  1918,  it  had  924,567 
acres  in  wheat,  which  produced  8,833,000  bushels.  The  aver- 
age yield  of  wheat  to  the  acre  is  7%  bushels. 

The  Union  of  South  Africa,  1918,  produced  21,566,000 
Ibs.  of  wheat. 

In  former  times  wheat  was  ground  by  hand 
How  Produced,  between  round  stones.  Then  came  mills, 

when  the  grain  was  ground  by  water  or 
animal  power,  the  first  ones  very  crude,  but  continually  im- 
proved, until  today  flour  mills  are  among  the  greatest  of  mod- 
ern inventions.  Besides  flour  of  different  grades  of  fineness 
and  whiteness,  mills  crush  wheat  into  coarser  materials,  pro- 
ducing wheat  grits  and  breakfast  foods  of  even  coarser  grain. 
Starch  is  ground  very  fine  from  the  white  part  of  the  grain. 
Old-fashioned  stone  mills  are  still  in  operation  among  the 
Arabs  of  Northern  Africa. 

The  whole  grain  of  wheat  is  ground  into  a  dark,  very 
Uses,  nutritious  flour,  said  to  have  every  ingredient,  in  the 

right  proportion,  that  the  human  system  needs  for 
nutrition.  By  removing  the  dark  part  of  the  grain,  white  flour 
is  made — more  popular  but  less  nutritious  than  whole  wheat 
flour.  Starch  is  made  from  the  white,  part  of  wheat,  and 
from  the  hard  varieties,  marcaroni  and  vermacelli,  used  for 
many  generations  by  the  Italians.  The  husk  of  the  grain,  or 
bran,  is  used  for  feeding  stock,  and  has  recently  become  pop- 


w   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  165 


as  food,  often  mixed  with  other  cereals  to  add  to  their 
nutritive  values.  Wheat  straw  furnishes  provender  for  horses 
and  cattle,  and  is  used  for  thatching  huts.  It  is  also  plaited 
into  "hat  straw",  for  making"  hats;  the  famous  Leghorn  braids 
first  made  in  Italy,  are  made  of  wheat  straw,  which  is  gath- 
ered green  and  bleached  in  the  sunlight. 

RYE 

Rye  (Secale  cereale)  is  similar  when  growing  to  wheat 
and  barley,  but  it  grows  in  poorer  soil  and  in  colder  climates. 
This  grain  is  next  to  wheat  in  nutrition,  and  flour  made  from 
rye  is  used  predominantly  in  northern  Continental  Europe. 
Eye  was  introduced  into  Europe  from  the  Island  of  Crete. 

The  world  crop  of  rye  for  1915  amounted  to  1,432,400,- 
000  bushels.  Of  this  amount  Europe,  including  all  Russia, 
produces  and  consumes  95  per  cent.  Africa  produces  but  little 
rye,  though  it  is  grown  in  Morocco,  Algeria  and  South  Africa. 
Rye  has  been  called  the  grain  of  poverty,  but  the  indigenous 
and  indigent  (not  to  add  indolent)  Africans  seem  to  have 
passed  over  this  poor  man's  cereal.  It  is  being  increased 
gradually  in  Southern  Africa  as  a  forage  crop  for  domestic 
animals  and  for  the  production  of  alcohol. 

It  is  used  much  with  wheat,  the  mixture  being  known 
Uses,  as  "blend-corn",  and  makes  an  excellent  bread.  Rye 

constitutes  the  chief  ingredient  of  "black-bread",  so 
universally  used  in  Russia.  Whiskey  and  vodka  are  distilled 
from  this  grain.  Roasted  seeds  are  a  good  substitute  for  cof- 
fee. The  straw  is  used  for  hat-braid,  floor  mats,  thatching, 
in  bricks,  and  largely  as  fodder  for  stock. 

MAIZE  OR  MEALIES 

Indian  corn  or  maize  (Zea  rnais),  is,  in  some  parts  of  the 
world,  as  Southern  United  States,  Mexico,  Central  America 
and  Egypt,  the  most  important  food  grain.  Corn  is  not  exten- 
sively used  in  Europe,  except  in  parts  of  Italy;  but  in  Great 
Britain  the  grain  is  increasing  in  popularity.  The  last  reports 
of  British  importation  of  maize  came  from  English  colonies 
in  Africa. 

When  white  men  came  to  the  Western  continent  maize 
was  an  important  food  of  the  Indians.  Soon  corn  became  a 
very  important  commodity  with  the  colonists  and  stood  many 
times  as  the  one  food  between  them  and  starvation. 


166  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


There  are  many  varieties  of  maize,  grains  of  the  differ- 
ent varieties  varying  in  size,  color,  form  and  composition. 
Some  kinds  are  rich  in  oil  and  others  in  starch. 

Corn  yields  from  15  to  50  bushels  to  the  acre,  according 
to  soil.  Growers  have  experimented  much  with  corn  in  order 
to  bring  it  to  perfection  arid  to  produce  certain  predominant 
qualities,  as  starch  or  glucose.  Sweet  or  sugar  corn,  and  a 
distinct  variety  known  as  pop-corn,  are  the  only  two  kinds 
used  exclusively  for  human  food.  Their  production  as  com- 
pared with  the  total  production  of  all  corn,  is  relatively  small. 
After  the  kernels  have  been  shelled  from 
How  Produced,  the  ripe  ear  they  are  spread  out  to  dry 
thoroughly,  as  they  quickly  ferment  and 
sprout  if  left  moist  and  heaped  together.  Indians  formerly 
parched  corn  over  a  fire-  Some  of  it  was  eaten  as  parched 
grains,  but  most  of  it  was  pounded  into  meal,  sifted,  and  a 
quantity  stored  for  winter  use,  when  it  constituted  the  prin- 
cipal food. 

The  dried  grains  are  now  broken  by  machinery  into 
coarse  pieces  known  as  cracked  corn  or  samp;  ground  finer 
into  hominy  and  grits;  still  finer  into  meal,  and  yet  finer 
into  flour. 

For  making  starch  the  germs  are  separated  from  the 
grains  and  then  pressed  between  cloths  by  heavy  machinery 
in  order  to  extract  all  the  oil. 

The  young  ear  of  some  varieties  of  corn  is  eaten  as 
Uses,  a  vegetable  or  mixed  with  other  ingredients  into  foods. 
From  the  dried  seeds  are  made  cracked  corn,  grits, 
corn-meal,  starch,  glucose,  grape  sugar,  corn-syrup  caramel, 
corn-oil,  oil-cake,  bran,  used  variously  for  human  or  animal 
food  and  for  industrial  purposes.  The  stalk  of  the  plant  con- 
tains a  pith  which  is  used  in  cellulose,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  stalk  is  used  in  paper  and  for  fertilizer.  The  spear-like 
leaves  are  used  for  fodder  and  paper  stock;  the  bushes  are 
used  for  mattresses  and  door-mats,  and  the  cobs  are  used  for 
fuel  and  to  make  "corn-cob  pipes".  Many  varieties  of  corn  are 
dried  for  the  exclusive  use  of  stock  and  poultry. 

Kaffir  corn  is  a  native  of  South  Africa  and  takes  its  name 
from  the  African  tribe  known  as  Kaffirs.  It  belongs  to  the 
same  group  of  plants  as  broom  corn  and  other  non-sacchar- 


RAW    PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  167 


3ne  sorghums.  It  was  introduced  into  America  in  1888.  Those 
who  have  tried  the  kaffir  flour  say  it  makes  good  bread.  Kan- 
sas has  mills  for  grinding  it. 

Comparative  Yields 

Bushels 
Grain  Fodder 

Red  Kaffir  Corn 58-25  6.05 

White  Kaffir  Corn  32.55  5.33 

Indian  Corn  or  black  hull  45.00  3.07 

The  maize  crop  of  the  world  for  1915  was  3,875,927,000 
bushels,  of  which  the  United  States  raised  71  per  cent. 

The  whole  of  civilized  Africa  produces  only  about  one 
per  cent,  of  the  world's  supply  of  maize. 

Egypt  is  the  largest  producer  in  North 
Where  Produced.     Africa,  having  nearly  2,000,000  acres  un- 
der cultivation  and  producing  some  8,500,- 
000  muids.    Its  acreage  equals  that  of  wheat  or  cotton,  ex- 
cept in  the  low  rice  and  sugar  lands  of  the  Delta. 

In  1915,  Egypt  produced  74,318,273  bushels  of  maize; 
in  1916,  Egypt  had  2,098,000  acres  in  maize  and  millet;  in 
1917,  Egypt  had  1,685,000  acres  in  corn,  which  yielded  63,- 
757,000  bushels. 

Egypt,  1920,  had  under  cultivation  in  maize  1,937,869 
acres. 

In  Algeria  owing  to  lack  of  summer  rains,  maize  occu- 
pies but  a  very  limited  area,  and  the  annual  production  is 
only  about  125,000  muids.  Export  in  1915  was  894,768 
pounds;  in  1916,  730,570  pounds.  Production,  1917,  was  302,- 
000  bushels  from  20,000  acres. 

Morocco's  export  in  1915  was  valued  at  $145,000;  in  1916 
at  $723,000. 

Maize  growing  in  wild  tropical  Africa  suffers  from  ele- 
phants and  wart-hogs.  A  small  export  (£30,000)  was  started 
in  1912,  from  Rhodesia.  In  1915,  England  and  Australia  took 
29,668  tons.  In  1916,  the  product  of  167,012  acres  amounted 
to  83,175  tons. 

In  1914-'15  Europeans  cultivated  in  Northern  Rhodesia 
16,600  acres  of  maize,  exporting  3,850  tons  ($109,500). 

In  1914,  Nigeria  exported  maize  to  the  value  of  $28,232 ; 
in  1916,  2,298,122  pounds,  valued  at  $24,700. 


168  HAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


In  Somali  corn  is  grown  in  large  amounts  and  is  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  the  Indians^ 

In  French  Equatorial  Africa  corn  is  grown  in  all  sections, 
especially  at  Lobi. 

At  Dahomey,  corn  and  igname  are  the  principal  articles 
of  food  of  the  native.  It  is  toasted  in  the  ear  or  cooked  in  a 
meal.  Its  cultivation  is  so  well  developed  that  exports  for 
starch  making  amounted  to  7,300  tons  in  1906. 

In  Senegal  corn  is  only  a  product  of  local  consumption. 

In  1913,  French  West  Africa  exported  29,263,285 
pounds  of  maize  valued  at  $205,018. 

In  1915,  Dahomey  exported  corn  to  the  value  of  $63,149. 

In  the  Belgian  Congo  corn  is  one  of  the  chief  products 
cultivated  by  the  natives,  and  has  spread  to  nearly  every  part 
of  the  state.  .Two,  and  even  three  crops  of  corn  is  the  yearly 
yield  in  the  Lower  Congo. 

In  1915,  Belgian  Congo  exported  269,896  pounds  of  corn. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  maize  is  raised  in  the  Kame- 
roon.  In  1904  this  colony  exported  nearly  2,000,000  pounds 
of  maize. 

The  Gold  Coast  exported  in  1917,  1,272  tons  of  corn. 

Throughout  South  Africa  corn  is  known  as  mealies,  prob- 
ably a  corruption  of  the  Portuguese  word  "milho"  which 
means  grain. 

The  chief  produce  of  Angola  (1913)  was  mealies  which 
is  ground  into  a  flour  called  fuba  and  is  the  main  food  of  the 
natives. 

Corn  has  been  established  in  the  southern  colonies  of 
Africa  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  supply  more  than  the  local 
needs. 

In  the  Transvaal  maize  is  grown  on  practically  every 
farm.  Many  farmers  grow  from  200  to  1,000  acres  and  sev- 
eral have  6,000  acres  in  this  staple.  The  Kaffirs  cultivate  a 
great  deal  for  their  own  use,  both  on  native  locations  and  on 
rented  farms.  The  farms  average  about  5,000  acres  each. 

The  possible  planting  season  lasts  two  months.  Plenteous 
rains  in  a  favorable  climate  and  properly  cultivated  soil  make 
great  promises  for  the  future. 

Maize  in  South  Africa  appears  to  be  less  seriously  affect- 
ed by  disease  than  most  crops. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  16^ 

Orange  Free  State  is  by  far  the  largest  producer  and  ex- 
porter of  maize  of  any  of  the  four  provinces  of  the  South  Afri- 
can Union. 

The  Union  of  South  Africa,  1918,  produced  585,490,000 
Ibs.  of  maize. 

Exports  of  Maize  from  South  Africa — Bags 

1908   664,485 

1909   1,537,784 

1910   1,760,208 

1911   1,018,630 

1912   963,882 

The  response  of  South  Africa  in  meeting  the  war  demand 
for  maize  is  indicated  as  follows:  1913,  the  Union  of  South 
Africa  exported  11,500  short  tons  maize;  1914,  110,000  short 
tons;  1915,  149,000  short  tons;  1916,  6,827,296  pounds  kaffir 
corn,  valued  at  $68,929;  1916,  931,110,700  pounds  maize, 
valued  at  $4,269,712,  and  13,512,240  pounds  of  maize  meal., 
valued  at  $169,646.  In  1917,  with  3,150,000  acres  in  corn 
and  maize,  the  exports  were:  1,059,184  pounds  kaffir  corn, 
valued  at  $16,138;  524,946,464  pounds  maize,  valued  at  $7,- 
396,409;  105,360,864  pounds  maize  meal,  valued  at  $1.982,- 
397. 

For  1918  the  total  harvest  was  estimated  to  be  not  more 
than  30,000,000  bushels.  In  1917  it  was  34,999,000  bushels; 
2,500,000  bags  of  surplus  maize  were  purchased  in  1918  by 
the  British  Government. 

Rhodesia  exported,  1920,  maize  to  the  value  of  £415,130. 

In  1916,  Mozambique  exported  through  Lorenco 
Marques,  1,944,773  pounds  jnaize,  valued  at  $42,460;  23,000 
pounds  maize  flour,  valued  at  $900,  and  1,114,105  pounds 
kaffir  corn,  valued  at  $54,000;  1914,  through  Beira,  Indian 
corn  to  the  value  of  $232,417.  The  1918  crop  was  estimated 
at  188,450  bags. 

Maize  during  the  1918  season  suffered  from  adverse 
weather  conditions.  It  is  estimated  that  under  favorable  con- 
ditions the  output  would  have  been  500,000  bags.  Another 
cause  also  responsible  for  the  short  crop,  was  scarcity  of  la- 
bor. In  Mozambique  the  corn  crop  often  alternates  with  a 
crop  of  peanuts  or  Cape  beans. 


170  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


E.  G.  Montgomery  in  the  "Corn  Crops"  (1913)  claim? 
that  sorghum  is  the  staple  cereal  of  African  natives.  In  Swazi- 
land natives  store  maize  in  the  husk  in  trees  hanging  from 
branches. 

Corn  of  all  varieties  is  raised  throughout  the  island  of 
Madagascar,  over  100,000  acres  being  under  cultivation. 

In  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  maize  has  become  an  import- 
ant crop,  raised  chiefly  for  local  use. 

Corn  is  raised  in  the  Canary  Islands  and  has  become  an 

important  food.     The  corn  production  in  these  islands  for 

1915  was  valued  at  $50,000,  and  that  for  1916,  at  $111,000. 

Maize,  corn  and  sorghum  are  steadily  increasing 

Outlook,     in  output  and  seem  likely  to  continue  to  increase. 

RICE 

Rice  (Oryza  sativa)  is  the  principal  food  of  one-third  of 
the  people  of  the  world.  There  are  several  kinds  of  culti- 
vated rice,  as,  common  rice,  swamp  rice,  upland  rice,  glutin- 
ous rice,  besides  a  hundred  minor  varieties,  all  derived  from 
one  species. 

The  whites  have  fostered  its  cultivation  in  equatorial  and 
semi-tropical  Africa.  The  natives  are  increasingly  inclined  to 
raise,  eat  and  export  it,  especially  on  the  coast  of  the  Indian 
Ocean. 

Formerly  rice  was  grown  only  in  marshes 
How  Produced,  and  other  naturally  wet  lands,  but  for  gen- 
erations the  practice  of  flooding  rice  farms 
where  the  moisture  is  not  sufficient  has  been  common.  Mod- 
ern irrigation  has  turned  many  bush  lands,  waste  and  hill 
lands  into  productive  rice  fields.  When  the  crop  is  reaped 
the  laborers  work  in  the  mud  and  water,  often  above  the 
knees.  Upland  rice,  cultivated  during  the  rainy  season  and 
often  helped  by  means  of  artificial  watering,  is  generally 
whiter  than  rice  of  the  marshes. 

"Paddy"  is  the  term  giv«n  to  rice  before  it  is  decorticat- 
ed ;  after  hulling  it  is  known  as  "cargo  rice".  It  is  then  milled 
to  remove  the  outer  skin,  when  it  becomes  "skinned"  or 
"white"  rice.  By  another  milling  process  the  grains  are  pol- 
ished and  the  finished  product  is  that  of  common  domestic 
use. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


Rice  is  chiefly  used  in  the  whole  hulled  grain  as  food 
Uses,     but  it  is  cooked  in  many  ways,  either  alone  or  mixed 

with  other  food  materials.  It  is  popular  made  into  pud- 
dings and  other  desserts,  arid  a  modern  process  of  swelling  or 
"puffing"  the  grains  into  dry,  light,  flakey  ovals  has  made  it  a 
popular  breakfast  food.  Rice  flour,  generally  mixed  with  the 
flour  of  other  grains,  is  made  into  bread  and  cake.  Rice  Is 
a  very  nutritious  cereal,  although  it  is  not  as  complete  in  food 
elements  as  several  other  grains. 

The  following  method  of  culture  is  taken  from  the  "Cot- 
ton Growers'  Annual",  1918: 

Preparations  for  the  crop  begin  in  February  or  March. 
Planting  is  done  in  March  and  April. 

Picking  begins  in  September  and  is  usually  finished  by 
December  1.  By  legislative  decree,  all  cotton  plants  must  be 
pulled  up  and  removed  before  December  31st,  to  prevent  the 
boll  worm  from  hibernating. 

Ginning  is  usually  done  at  ginning  factories  in  the  interior 
towns.  The  "ginners"  are  mostly  owned  by  interior  cotton  mer- 
chants, and  the  large  exporting  houses. 

Yield  averages  about  450  pounds  Lint  Cotton  per  acre. 

Stajfcle  varies  in  length,  being  from  1  to  1%  inches,  the  lat- 
ter being  the  length  of  the  new  "Sakel"  or  "Sakellaridis"  variety. 

Planters  sell  to  the  ginners.  Small  growers  sell  to  middle- 
men who  sell  to  the  ginners. 

Baling  and  hydraulic  pressing  is  done  at  the  ginnery.  The 
cotton  is  then  rebaled  and  steam  pressed  at  Alexandria.  Bale  is 
750  Ibs.  gross. 

Among  the  by-products  of  cotton  the  principal  one  is  cot- 
ton-seed oil,  of  which  74,583  metric  tons  were  exported  from 
Egypt  in  1914.  The  residuum  after  the  oil  is  pressed  from 
the  seed  is  cotton-seed  cake,  which  is  a  staple  food  for  live- 
stock, especially  cattle.  The  stalks  and  leaves  (which  up  to 
1918  were  required  to  be  burned  by  government  order  after 
the  crop  was  harvested  in  an  effort  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
the  boll  weevil  pest)  were  largely  used  during  1918  for  pro- 
ducing vegetable  gas.  On  account  of  the  scarcity  of  coal, 
more  than  300  engines  burning  gas  made  from  refuse  vege- 
table matter,  were  in  operation. 

In  1913,  Algeria  exported  to  France  528,440 
Production  by  pounds  of  rice,  valued  at  $23,600.  In  the 
Countries.  ten  years,  1904  to  1913,  inclusive,  Egyptian 

rice  cultivation  varied  from  234,000  to  298,- 
000  acres,  about  90  per  cent,  of  which  were  in  Lower  Egypt. 
In  1915  there  were  331,000  acres  in  ripe,  which  yielded  585,- 
000  tons  of  paddy  and  366,000  tons  of  cleaned  rice.  Of  this 


172  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 

\ 

amount  10,422  tons  were  exported,  less  than  the  previous 
year,  when  13,077  tons  were  exported.  In  1916  Egypt  had 
150,310  acres  in  rice,  with  an  exportation  of  22,473  tons,  val- 
ued at  $1,406,975.  In  1917  the  production  was  245,000  tons, 

In  Uganda  several  upland  varieties  of  rice  can  be  easily 
grown,  especially  in  the  rainy  districts  bordering  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza.  The  Department  of  Agriculture  is  teaching  cultiva- 
tion, preparation  and  use  of  rice,  and  the  clean,  hulled  grain 
meets  with  much  better  reception  than  did  paddy. 

In  the  East  Africa  Protectorate,  in  1916  there  was  a 
small  export,  but  the  production  does  not  meet  the  demand 
of  the  population,  many  of  whom  are  Indians  who  import 
rice  from  India.  A  ten  per  cent,  import  duty  is  causing  more 
attention  to  be  paid  to  local  cultivation. 

In  the  Co23go  two  kinds  of  rice  are  grown,  swamp  rice  in 
the  abundantly  watered  soil,  and  mountain  rice,  which  thrives 
best  in  light  soil  with  not  too  much  water;  the  latter  was  in- 
troduced by  the  Arabs.  In  1906  more  than  a  thousand  tons 
of  rice  were  sold  in  the  market  of  Stanleyville,  £ince  which 
time  this  grain  had  grown  very  much  in  favor  and  quantity. 
By  1915  production  had  almost  overtaken  consumption  and 
during  that  year  2,508,105  pounds  were  exported.  In  1918 
the  estimated  surplus  was  over  15,000  tons.  During  the  last 
two  years  of  the  war  the  rice  crop  was  requisitioned  by  Gov- 
ernment. 

Rice  was  introduced  into  Nyasaland  by  the  Arabs  and 
Portuguese  and  cultivation  has  since  been  encouraged  under 
British  rule,  partly  to  supply  the  native  troops,  who  required 
about  500  tons  per  annum,  and  partly  that  the  natives  might 
be  enabled  to  pay  the  hut  tax.  The  supply  just  about  equals 
the  local  need ;  a  few  tons  have  been  exported.  The  smallest 
crop  of  rice  in  Nyasaland  recently  was  717  tons  in  1914;  and 
the  largest  1,317  tons  in  1916.  In  1915  the  exports  amounted 
to  1,606,000  pounds,  valued  at  $8,030. 

In  Northern  Rhodesia  the  natives  are  slowly  substituting 
the  red  and  white  rice,  introduced  by  the  Arabs,  for  millet. 
In  the  south  it  is  difficult  to  turn  them  from  mealies,  beans 
and  ground-nuts,  to  rice. 

Union  of  South  Africa.  Trial  crops  of  rice  in  Natal  have 
given  good  results,  but  rice  has  not  generally  been  successful 
in  South  Africa.  As  there  is  a  large  market  for  rice  in  this 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  173 


part  of  Africa  its  cultivation  is  being  encouraged  and  ex- 
periments are  being  tried  in  various  localities.  The  annual 
imports  amount  to  something  like  $2,000,000,  with  a  duty  of 
-.Dout  25c  per  100  pounds. 

*n  Sierra  Leone  rice  areas  are  limited  to  the  alluvial  flats 
-uong  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lands  that  become  swampy  dur- 
i-nK  the  rainy  season.  These  natives  care  more  for  rice  than 
most  African  natives,  but  they  like  the  large-grained  native 
rice  better  than  the  small  grained  white  varieties.  The  brown- 
ish color,  however,  of  the  native  rice  is  against  its  sale  in 
European  markets.  White  American  rice  has  been  intro- 
duced into  Sierra  Leone  by  American  missionaries  and  gives 
good  results. 

Exports  of  home-grown  rice  from  Sierra  Leone  in  1911, 
were  340  tons;  1913,  323  tons,  valued  at  $19,415;  1915,  435 
ions. 

The  Gold  Coast  imports  rice.  There  are  no  exports  of 
home-grown  rice,  and  only  very  small  re-exports.  There 
is  an  import  duty  on  nearly  all  rice  of  one  shilling  per  ton. 

In  Nigeria  rice  is  grown  to  a  small  extent  and  of  good 
quality  in  the  southern  provinces,  but  more  extensively  in  the 
northern  provinces.  In  the  north  the  reddish  native  grain  is 
more  highly  favored  than  the  white  imported  rice,  but  there 
is  little  trade  movement  in  rice  in  this  country. 

Rice  is  first  among  foodstuffs  in  the  colonies  of  French 
Equatorial  Africa.  Its  nutritive  value  is  much  greater  than 
that  of  millet  or  igname-  It  grows  in  Soudan  and  Guinea,  es- 
pecially. At  Ivory  Coast  there  are  few  rice  fields — in  the  la- 
goon regions  only.  There  are  still  fewer  at  Dahomey. 

At  Senegal,  though  rice  grows  wild  in  some  places,  it  is 
neglected  for  millet  and  peanuts.  Some  is  harvested  in  Cayor. 
Casamance,  50  years  ago  exported,  whe'reas  today  it  imports 
rice ;  cause,  the  rubber  fever. 

In  1914,  Senegal  imported  108,515,618  pounds  of  rice, 
valued  at  $2,400,000,  and  exported  497,184  pounds,  valued 
at  $11,000. 

Liberia.  During  the  war  it  was  necessary  for  the  United 
States  to  extend  a  credit  of  $5,000,000  for  the  purpose  of  pur- 
chasing rice  and  other  cereals  for  Liberia,  which  the  residents 
had  neglected  for  coffee,  leaving  them  without  necessary  food 
materials. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


The  rice  country  par  excellence  is  the  Niger  bend.  Inun- 
dated periodically  by  the  Bani  and  the  Niger,  irrigated  na- 
turally by  the  little  falling  rivers  of  the  winter  season,  its  fer- 
tility is  prodigious.  By  transplanting  in  the  inundated  lands 
as  soon  as  the  month  of  July,  two  crops  a  year  could  easily  be 
obtained. 

It  is  dirty  looking,  reddish,  because  it  is  badly  shelled. 
If  it  were  treated  properly  it  would  be  as  fine  as  Indo-China 
rice,  and  is  not  so  easily  attacked  by  weevils. 

Within  the  last  decade  Madagascar  has  changed  from  an 
importing  rice  country  to  one  exporting  this  cereal  in  consid- 
erable quantities.  Rice  has  become  a  staple  crop  of  this  large 
island,  and  has  spread  to  every  section  of  it.  Both  the  white 
and  red  varieties  are  cultivated.  Plantations  are  improving 
with  the  improvement  of  methods  of  cultivation  and  harvest- 
ings Exports  are  made  to  Mauritius,  Reunion  and  South  Af- 
rica. In  1913,  30  per  cent,  of  the  exported  rice  went  to  France 
and  over  20  per  cent,  to  British  colonies.  In  1915  the  exports 
amounted  to  $767,857  in  value.  In  1916  there  were  exported 
30,000  tons,  besides  supplying  the  large  local  demand.  Ex- 
perts claim  that  exportations  in  Madagascar  can  easily  reach 
100,000  tons  within  two  or  three  years. 

Madagascar  raised  701,005  tons  of  rice  in  1918. 

Rice  is  cultivated  in  Zanzibar  and  Pemba  islands  by  the 
natives  for  their  own  use. 

Mauritius  and  its  neighboring  islands  cultivate  rice  in  a 
limited  way  for  local  consumption  only. 

The  rice  grown  in  Mozambique  is  of  excellent  quality  and 
can  be  made  a  paying  crop.  In  1914  Mozambique  exported 
through  the  port  of  Lorenco  Marques  rice  to  the  value  of  $1,- 
400,  and  through  the  port  of  Mozambique  $5,832  worth.  In 
1915  the  exports  through  Mozambique  were  2,606,755 
pounds,  and  through  Quelimane,  1,108,674  pounds. 

COTTON 

The  world  cotton  production  is  20  million  500-pound 
bales,  of  which  the  United  States  has  produced  14  millions 
in  a  year  (1914),  exporting  about  two-thirds. 

The  enterprising  cupidity  of  American  speculators  has  be- 
come a  menace  to  1,500,000  European  workmen.  In  spite  of 
the  cotton  from  Egypt  and  the  Indies,  English  spindles  (48,- 
000,000)  and  looms  (650,000)  are  threatened  with  idleness. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  175 


France  needs  180,000  tons  more  than  her  colonies  produce. 
This  is  why  the  industrial  nations  seek  to  extend  the  cultiva- 
tion of  cotton  in  their  own  colonies.  After  much  experiment- 
ing, furnishing  free  seed,  instruction  and,  in  some  cases,  trans- 
port, the  knowledge  has  been  secured  as  to  where  and  when 
not  to  cultivate  cotton. 

The  French  succeed  in  Algeria,  Guadeloupe,  Madagas- 
car, Tahiti;  but  especially  in  West  Africa.  The  Niger  and 
Senegal  basins  furnish  an  immense  well-watered  area.  For- 
merly (1865)  these  coast  countries  produced  cotton,  and  new 
activity  is  now  probable. 

While  the  natives  have  manufactured  cloth  from  wild 
cotton  for  many  years,  only  recently  has  textile  machinery  of 
modern  design  been  shipped  to  South  Africa.  Cotton  mills 
will  likely  be  established  soon  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Nyanza 
where  the  cultivation  of  the  cotton  plant  has  proved  success- 
ful. The  war  has  demonstrated  the  need  of  local  production 
of  cotton  goods,  so  much  in  demand  throughout  Africa,  and 
has  awakened  the  people  to  the  need  of  factories  in  various 
parts  of  the  continent. 

Cotton  was  sowed  on  445  acres  in  Algeria  during  1921. 

Nigeria  is  the  chief  field  of  English  exploitation.  With 
an  area  of  suitable  soil,  one-half  that  of  the  cotton  states  of 
America,  and  a  population  of  18,000,000,  in  spite  of  boll  wee- 
vil and  other  drawbacks,  Nigeria  alone  can  make  Lancashire 
independent  of  American  monopolists. 

Pneumatic  ginners  are  operating  near  Kano- 

Nigeria  exported  in  1915,  24,061  tons  of  lint,  valued  at 
£56,351;  in  1916,  66,555  tons,  valued  at  £243,946.  In  addi- 
tion, cotton  seed,  1,661  tons  in  1915,  and  864  tons  in  1916, 
was  valued  at  £5,013  and  £2,526. 

Nigeria  exported,  1920,  raw  cotton  to  the  value  of  £716,- 
733. 

The  British  government  bid  2%d  per  pound  for  tfie  1918 
crop  delivered  to  the  railroad. 

The  natives  have  spun  and  woven  cloth  for  a  million 
people  for  many  years.  Scientists,  testing  samples  of  cotton, 
find  defects  in  the  Nigeria  product,  namely,  uneven  staple, 
poor  seed,  and  the  presence  of  immature  cotton. 


176  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


Egypt  raises  a  grade  of  cotton  second  only  to  sea  island 
in  quality.  During  the  war  cotton  growing  partly  gave  place 
to  needed  cereals.  Average  reduction  amounted  to  360,000 
feddans.  In  1919  acreage  was  further  restricted  to  1,400,000 
fefldans  (feddan  is  1.1  acre).  The  crop  was  640,000,000 
pounds  in  1918. 

The  best  variety  of  Egyptian  cotton  is  known  as  "Sakel- 
laridis"  and  has  a  staple  from  li/2  to  2  inches  in  length.  Other 
inferior  grades  having  a  yellowish  and  brownish  color  are 
known  as  Nubari,  Abassi,  Mit  AM,  Ashmouni,  Joamovich. 
Sakellaridis  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  finest  fabrics, 
threads,  laces,  hosiery,  corduroy,  and  has  been  in  much  de- 
mand for  balloon  casings,  aeroplane  wings  and  automobile 
tires. 

Of  the  exports  for  1917,  England  took  503,597  bales; 
United  States,  75,865  bales;  France,  44,560;  Italy,  50,140; 
Japan,  18,218;  Spain,  16,911;  Greece,  4,891-  The  Egyptian 
crop  grows  chiefly  at  the  Delta  of  the  Nile,  also  along  its  banks 
in  Soudan  and  Abyssinia. 

In  South  Africa  the  best  success  has  been  in  the  Rusten- 
burg  District  of  the  Transvaal,  where  the  rainfall  of  50  to  60 
inches  makes  conditions  eminently  favorable  to  cotton.  Na- 
tive labor  is  cheap  and  the  blacks  soon  learn  how  to  gather 
the  harvest.  In  1917  there  was  an  export  of  75,000  pounds. 
As  much  could  be  produced  here,  says  H.  H.  Fyfe,  writing  in 
1911,  as  is  raised  in  the  whole  of  the  Southern  States. 

"It  costs  to  grow  cotton,  about  $10  per  acre.  Each  acre 
should  yield  1,000  pounds  of  seed  cotton  and  300  pounds  of 
lint.  At  10  cents  a  pound,  which  is  low,  this  would  fetch  $30, 
leaving  a  profit  of  $20  per  acre.  Planting  and  growing  oc- 
cur during  the  rainy  season,  and  picking  during  the  dry  sea- 
son." 

In  Rustenburg,  Waterburg,  Loutpansburg  and  Natal,  the 
cotton  yield  for  1917  was  700,000  pounds  of  seed  cotton  and 
235,000  pounds  of  lint  cotton.  The  American  upland  varieties 
are  best  suited  to  South  Africa  and  are  generally  of  better 
grade  and  bring  a  cent  a  pound  more  in  Lancashire  than  sim- 
ilar grades  from  America. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  177 


Union  of  Sowth  Africa,  1920,  produced  2,592,200  Ibs.  of 
seed  cotton. 

Nyassaland  produced,  1919,  cotton  to*.the  amount  of  4," 
968,130  Ibs. 

Such  progress  as  has  been  made  in  the  development  of 
cotton  growing  in  South  Africa  is  largely  due  to  the  British 
Cotton  Growers'  Association.  While  the  actual  output  is  yet 
small  and  years  of  sustained  effort  will  be  required  to  rnafee 
the  production  an  important  factor  in  the  world's  supply,  the 
difficulties  encountered  are  not  so  much  those  of  soil,  labor, 
and  climate  (cotton  is  a  drought  resistant)  as  in  adequate 
means  of  communication  and  transportation. 

The  Zambesi  valley  offers  good  prospect  of  cotton 
growing  because  it  can  be  so  easily  tainted  from  the  river. 

From  Uganda  40,000  bales  were  shipped  in  1914.  There 
is  a  prospect  of  400,000  bales  per  year,  better  in  grade  thais 
American  middling.  The  price  paid  to  natives  for  seed  cot- 
ton at  the  gin  was  3%  cents  per  pound,  in  1913.  During  1912 
the  best  grade  of  Uganda  cotton  sold  at  18  cents  per  pound 
in  Liverpool.  In  this  upland  region  of  Abyssinia  and  Ugan- 
da 700  to  800  pounds  per  acre  of  cotton  along  the  alluvial 
valleys  is  a  very  favorable  record  compared  to  the  average  of 
one  bale  per  acre  in  America.  In  the  Soudan,  which  has  an 
area  of  nearly  one  million  square  miles,  the  possibilities  of 
producing  cotton  are  limited  chiefly  by  the  scant  population, 
but  the  acreage  is  steadily  increasing.  The  best  region  is  be- 
tween the  Blue  and  White  Niles.  Mr.  E.  A.  Stanton,  an  Eng- 
lish authority,  writes  that  the  future  of  the  Soudan  lies  in 
cotton. 

During  1912  approximately  60,000  acres  were  planted 
to  cotton  in  Uganda.  The  government  distributed  207  tons 
of  seed  among  the  natives.  About  1,000  pounds  of  seed  cot- 
ton per  acre  have  been  grown  in  good  locations.  The  Agri- 
cultural Department  maintains  an  experimental  farm  where 
natives  are  taught  how  to  plow  and  to  ascertain  the  best  va- 
riety suited  to  the  region.  Through  government  control,  a 
mixing  of  varieties  has  ceased.  From  the  year  1909  to  1913 
the  production  increased  seven-fold  in  quantity  and  value. 
Cotton  is  now  the  money  crop  in  Uganda.  Considerable  of 
the  American  type  known  as  Allans  Sunflower  and  King,  has 


178  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


been  grown  and  appears  better  than  the  same  varieties  raised 
in  America.  The  staple  averages  from  1  to  1*4  inches.  - 

The  natives  of  Mozambique  seem  especially  adapted  to 
cultivation  of  cotton.  First  plantations  were  started  in  1908 
and  the  crop  amounted  to  3,564,000  pounds  in  1917.  Egyp- 
tian, Sea  Island  and  Upland  cottons  are  being  tried  out.  No 
cotton  mills  have  yet  been  erected  to  utilize  the  local  crop. 
The  plantations  lie  along  the  banks  of  the  Zambesi  River. 
The  navigable  rivers  provide  good  transportation  which  is 
lacking  in  other  colonies,  but  the  labor  question  is  unfortun- 
ate, as  the  "boys"  of  Mozambique  find  more  profitable  work 
as  indentured  laborers  in  the  Transvaal  mines.  The  Portu- 
guese colony  of  Angola  is  beginning  to  export  cotton. 

From  Northern  Rhodesia  100,000  bales  per  year  seem 
possible  when  the  railway  is  extended  from  Zambesi  to  Beira: 
In  Northern  Rhodesia  and  Nyassaland  the  natives  are  not  so 
advanced  as  in  Nigeria  or  Uganda  which  counts  against  the 
rapid  expansion  of  the  industry. 

An  increasing  amount  of  cotton  is  being  grown  in  Som- 
aliiand.  The  Italian  government  has  paid  (1911)  as  high  as 
228  lire  per  quintal  for  choice  Abassi  and  Sakellaridis. 

In  Algeria  the  industry  is  localized  in  the  Orleansville 
and  Oranie  Districts  where  Egyptian  cotton  only  is  raised  and 
yields  1,700  pounds  per  acre,  worth  $260  per  acre  in  1917. 
Considerable  seed  is  grown  at  the  Habea  experiment  station 
for  Algeria,  Tunis  and  Morocco. 

In  French  West  Africa  20,000  bales  were  raised  in  1916. 
Cotton  growing  has  not  proved  so  successful  on  the  West 
Coast  under  the  British  experiments  on  account  of  excessive 
moisture.  Natives  are  too  lazy  to  plant  cotton  every  year, 
when  cocoa  requires  only  one  planting.  Cocoa,  peanuts  and 
palm-oil  are  more  profitable  crops. 

In  British  and  German  East  Africa  much  money  has  been 
spent  in  developing  the  cotton  industry  which  seems  especial- 
ly suited  for  this  region.  Cotton  was  the  largest  item  of  ex- 
port from  British  East  Africa,  in  1913  amounting  in  value  to 
$1,510,642,  most  of  this  being  from  Uganda.  Cotton  is  the 
third  export  in  importance  from  former  German  East  Africa. 
In  British  East  Africa  the  Abassi  variety  of  the  Egyptian  cot- 
ton gives  the  best  results.  Twice  a  year  the  Juba  River,  along 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OP   AFRICA  179 


which  cotton  is  raised,  overflows  and  brings  down  a  rich  de- 
posit so  that  it  is  possible  to  get  two  crops  a  year.  With  the 
aid  of  irrigation,  nearly  one  million  acres  could  be  put  into 
cotton.  In  the  upper  lake  region,  both  American  and  mid- 
dling cotton  are  successful. 

In  German  East  Africa  54,400  acres  were  under  cotton 
for  the  year  1913;  4,150,000  pounds  of  cotton  were  exported 
in  1912.  The  English  troops,  in  1917,  captured  20,000  bales  of 
cotton  at  the  Rufigi  Delta.  Only  7,000  bales  were  raised  in 
1912.  The  average  .yield  was  160  pounds  of  ginned  cotton  per 
acre.  This  was  of  the  American  Upland  variety.  Germany 
appropriated  $50,000  a  year  to  encourage  the  industry,  and 
the  number  of  colored  pupils  at  the  experiment  stations  was 
constantly  increasing.  The  chief  obstacle  with  cotton-grow- 
ing there  is  the  irregularity  of  rainfall. 

Former  German  East  Africa  exported,  1920,  cotton  to  the 
value  of  £119,255  (1,147,912  Ibs.). 

Madagascar,   Angola,   Senegambia   and    Central   Africa 

have  long  utilized  wild  cotton  or  plants  improved  by  cultiva- 
tion. 

There  are  many  insects  that  ruin  the  cotton.  One  of  the 
most  common  is  a  very  small  insect  called  oxycarenus  which 
gets  into  the  cotton  at  the  time  it  is  picked  and  stored.  Many 
experiments  have  been  made  to  exterminate  this  insect  but 
so  far  none  have  been  successful. 

A  small  red  bug  often  kills  the  plants  by  eating  the 
roots. 

The  heliothis  is  found  in  the  cotton  buds,  also  the  boll- 
worm.  Paris  Green  is  used  successfully  in  exterminating  the 
latter.  The  Gelechia  Gossypiella  is  a  green  fly  that  lives  on 
the  young  plants  and  keeps  them  from  developing. 

North  of  the  Equator,  the  cotton  crop  is  harvested 
Harvest,  in  the  fall ;  south  of  the  Equator  the  harvest  takes 

place  in  April  or  May.  The  cotton  is  planted  in 
rows  and  requires  considerable  initial  cultivation  to  prevent 
an  over-growth  of  weeds.  The  secret  of  success  in  cotton 
growing  is  to  keep  the  field  free  from  weeds.  During  the 
war  the  shortage  of  labor  resulted  in  planted  areas  being  so 
weed-choked  that  there  was  a  great  decrease  in  the  harvest. 


130  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


The  cost  of  production  varies  in  differ- 

Cost  of  Production,     ent  localities,  according  to  soil  and  labor 
conditions.     Ten  to  $50  per  acre  might 
be  considered  a  moderate  average. 
Outlook. 

The  amount  of  cotton  grown  in  Africa  outside  of  Egypt, 
now  amounting  to  about  200,000  bales  per  annum,  is  likely  to 
increase  ten-fold  during  the  next  ten  years — if  the  boll  weevil 
pest  is  checked.  Climatic  and  labor  conditions  are  favorable 
to  this  expansion. 

Nigeria  has  a  stretch  of  336,000  square  miles  suitable  for 
cotton  which  would  produce  several  million  bales  as  labor  is 
plentiful  and  intelligent. 

SISAL 

Sisal  (Agave  rigida  sisalana),  a  native  of  Yucatan,  is  the 
most  important  of  African  vegetable  fibres.  It  is  called  the 
orreeii  agave  from  the  bright  green  leaves.  It  is  a  member 
^f  the  family  to  which  the  century  plant  belongs  and  other 
agaves  which  produce  maguey,  pulque  and  mescal.  It  thrives 
In  different  parts  of  Africa.  On  the  East  Coast  it  is  more 
prosperous  than  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  It  is  driving 
•*rom  export  the  wild  fibres,  Sanseviera.  ehrenbergiS,  of  the 
East  Coast,  and  Sanserviera  Guineensis,  of  the  West  Coast. 

\ccording  to  Commerce  Report  of  June  3,  1917:  Three 
or  four  years  from  the  date  of  planting,  leaves  3%  to  5 1/2 
feet  in  length  are  cut  with  a  long  curved  tool.  The  cutter  is 
paid  16  cents  per  day,  averaging  1000  leaves.  During  the 
cutting  period  of  three  years,  the  operation  is  repeated  5  or 
6  times,  producing  (average)  120  leaves  in  German  East 
Africa,  to  160  in  British  East  Africa.  However,  the  former 
colony  is  compensated  by  a  fibre  value  of  3  per  cent,  to  2% 
per  cent  in  the  Protectorate. 

Bundles  of  40  leaves,  weighing  about  2%  pounds  apiece, 
are  railroaded  to  the  factory  on  light  cars,  propelled  by  hand, 
steam  or  gasoline.  To  secure  annually  from  one  acre  one  long 
ton  of  dry  fibre,  requires  about  680  plants  (17  green  leaves 
making  one  pound  of  dry  fibre). 

Sisal  planted  in  the  rainy  season  on  barren 

How  Produced,     land  will  grow.    In  normal  years  East  Africa 

produces  over  70  per  cent,  of  the  world's 

sisal — 20,000  tons  from  German,  6,000  tons  from  British  and 

600  tons  from  Portuguese  East  Africa. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  181 


The  fibre  of  the  agave  is  used  for  making  matting, 
Uses,     rugs,  bags,  ropes,  harness,  hammocks,  hats,  baskets 
and  brushes. 

In  1893  1,000  sisal  plants  from  Florida  were  imported 
to  German  East  Africa.  These  multiplied  to  150,000  healthy 
plants  in  1900,  warranting  the  introduction  of  fibre  extract- 
ing machinery.  The  first  shipment  of  clean  fibre  of  7%  tons, 
valued  at  $755,  increased  to  18,000  tons,  valued  at  $1,751,- 
494,  in  1912,  displacing  rubber,  which  had  been  the  chief 
product. 

Former  German  East  Africa  exported,  1920,  sisal  to  value 
of  £364,448. 

Stimulated  by  German  success,  the  English  planted  at 
Mombasa  in  1902,  sisal  suckers  brought  from  the  German  col- 
ony, resulting  in  several  plantations  which  exported  in  1914- 
'15  $200,000  worth  of  sisal.  The  production  of  sansevieria 
was  abandoned  in  1911,  being  displaced  by  the  cultivated 
sisal.  Samples  of  clean  fibre  were  tested  by  the  Imperial  In- 
stitute in  London  in  1910.  The  analysis  showed  that  the  staple 
5  feet  long,  of  very  good  strength,  had:  Moisture  11.1  per 
cent.;  ash,  0.98  per  cent.;  a-hydrolysis,  loss,  11.2  per  cent.; 
b-hydrolysis,  loss,  14.1  per  cent.;  acid  purification,  loss  2.3 
per  cent,  and  cellulose,  78.2  per  cent. 

The  total  acreage  in  British  East  Africa  devoted 
Acres  and  to  sisal  increased  from  7,000  in  1912,  to  18,000 
Exports.  acres  in  1916.  Fibre  valued  $175,481  (1,681 

long  tons)  was  exported  during  the  year  ending 
March  31,  1915.  Italy  took  2  per  cent.;  United  States  4  per 
cent,  and  the  United  Kingdom  93  per  cent.  The  war  de- 
creased later  shipments. 

The  average  crop  has  been  three  tons  per  acre;  number 
of  leaves  per  plant,  per  term,  about  160,  and  amount  of  fibre 
6%  pounds,  per  100  leaves.  There  is  no  risk  from  disease 
with  sisal.  It  is  an  assured  investment  easily  first  in  net  re- 
turn per  acre.  The  heavy  outlay  for  machinery  requires  large 
acreage  for  adequate  returns.  Labor  and  water  must  be 
plentiful. 

British  East  Africa  (Kenya)  exported,  1920,  fibres  to  the 
value  of  £205,710. 


182  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


An  association  of  planters  has  been  formed  to 
Future  of  the  foster  the  industry ;  in  marketing ;  collection 
Industry.  of  statistics;  improvement  of  working  meth- 

ods and  machinery;  recruiting  labor  and  im- 
provement of  transportatin  and  rates. 

The  industry  is  spreading  to  Natal,  which  has  sold  fibre 
as  high  as  $400  per  ton;  to  Rhodesia,  where  experiments 
with  various  fibres  are  being  made;  to  Nyassaland  which  ex- 
ported 233,482  pounds  in  1915-1916;  to  Mozambique  which 
exported  in  1916,  4,467,249  pounds,  mostly  through  Quili- 
mane,  valued  at  $145,452. 

Maurice  hemp,  since  1906,  is  cultivated  in  the  Lower 
Congo.  The  fibres  were  valued  at  $170  per  ton  in  1914. 

ESPARTO 

Esparto  (stipa  tenacissima),  or  Alfa,  a  tough,  wiry,  wild 
grass,  thrives  best  in  rocky,  arid  soil  and  requires  no  care  ex- 
cept weeding,  to  attain  a  height  of  20  to  30  inches. 

When  full  grown,  in  midsummer,  it  is  cut,  near  the  roots, 
with  a  sickle,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  tied  into  foot-thick  bun- 
dles, which  sell  for  1  peseta  (1918). 

It  keeps  indefinitely.  Camels  and  mules  eat  it  when 
green.  When  dried,  it  is  worked  into  matting,  shoes,  sandals, 
fruit-panniers,  rope  (combined  with  native  hemp)  and  main- 
ly into  paper  pulp.  This  paper  is  silky  and  pure  and  is  used 
in  de  luxe  editions  of  engravings,  as  well  as  for  fine  cigarette 
wrappers. 

Algeria,  Morocco  and  Tunis  cultivate  esparto.  The  first 
exports  hats,  matting  and  basketry;  also  the  raw  material, 
the  value  of  which  was  $1,293,486,  in  1914.  Much  of  the  crop 
is  woven  into  mats  on  hand  looms  at  Crevillente,  Spain. 

Tripoli  exports  wild  esparto  grass  to  England,  as  well  as 
manufactured  articles,  especially  baskets.  The  production 
of  esparto  decreases  partly  by  the  competition  of  Norway 
wood-pulp  and  also  from  waste  in  pulling  up  of  its  roots. 
Irrigation  of  desert  lands  would  stimulate  reproduction. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  alfa  in  Algeria,  Stipa  tenaccis- 
sima  and  Lygeum  Spartium.  The  former  monopolizes  the 
high  table  land  and  the  so-called  "Alfa-See".  The  govern- 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  183 


ment  controls  the  amount  of  crop  to  be  cut.  In  1890,  105,000 
tons  were  harvested,  worth  7,500,000  francs.  Oran  has  one- 
half  of  the  cultivated  area,  The  first  export  from  Algeria  was 
in  1862,  when  this  colony  furnished  half  the  world's  product; 
Spain,  Tunis  and  Tripoli  dividing  the  rest. 

Alfalfa  or  Lucern  (Medicago  sativa)  is  a  fibre-produc- 
ing grass,  growing  luxuriantly  on  poor  soil  in  northern  Africa. 

Alfalfa  is  the  chief  native  herbaceous  crop  of  Tripoli-  It 
is  used  as  fodder,  and  in  the  making  of  paper,  matting,  cord- 
age, hats,  chair-bottoms,  etc. 

Ramie  (Boehemeria  Nivea)  a  nettle  grass,  native  of 
China,  is  grown  in  Northern  Africa  for  the  manufacture  of 
grass  cloth.  The  fibre  is  superior  to  jute,  flax  or  hemp  and 
more  expensive. 

In  1896  ramie  (Urtica  nives)  was  imported  to  the  Congo, 
where  it  is  capable  of  six  harvests  per  year.  Other  varieties 
are  less  successful.  A  machine  for  peeling  ramie  awaits  in- 
vention. 

Junco  or  camel  grass  is  used  in  a  cheaper  matting. 

Bamboo  (Arundinaria  dendrocalamus)  ,  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  tropical  or  semi-tropical  Africa,  has  many  uses. 
Madagascar  produces  much  of  the  pulp  for  paper-making.  In 
Somali  the  bambo  lines  the  river  banks. 

Tambookie  or  tambuki  grass  is  now  used  in  making  a 
brown  wrapping  paper  of  good  quality.  It  brought  $18  per 
ton  (before  the  war)  in  London.  It  is  grown  in  South  and 
East  Africa. 

The  Aloe  (Aloe  spicata)  produces  a  fiber  (pita)  which 
resembles  sisal  hemp,  with  which  it  is  sometimes  confused.  It 
is  cultivated  in  Madagascar,  Mauritius  and  other  parts  of 
Africa,  not  for  the  drug,  so  much  as  for  material  for  Iace2 
shawls,  scarfs,  fancy  table  covers,  as  well  as  rope  and  twine- 
A  plant  may  have  40  leaves  8  to  10  feet  long,  a  foot  wide, 
yielding  10  per  cent,  of  fiber. 

Flax  (Linum  usitatissimum)  is  an  annual  raised  in  north- 
ern and  eastern  Africa  and  on  the  island  of  St.  Helena. 

It  was  the  chief  fiber  product  of  Egypt  from  very  early 
times  until  the  close  of  the  18th  century,  when  cotton  took 
the  first  place.  Belgian  Congo  and  Algeria  have  increasing 
acreage. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


The  Government  flax-mill  at  St.  Helena  has  operated 
since  1908.  Private  mills  also  make  thread  and  cloth,  and 
especially  lace.  In  1914  St.  Helena  had  a  flax  tonnage  (in- 
cluding seed)  of  396,956  pounds. 

Before  the  war,  Russia  produced  1,000,000,000  pounds 
of  flax  fiber  annually.  All  other  countries  less  than  500,000,- 
000  pounds.  The  Russian  fiber  is  inferior  to  the  Belgian  prod- 
uct, which  requires  very  fertile  soil  and  greater  care  in  culti- 
vation to  produce  Brussels  lace.  Flax  has  a  slender  stem,  a 
yard  high,  with  a  blue  or  white  flower  at  end  of  each  branch. 
The  linen  made  from  the  bast  of  the  plant  is  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament  and  by  Herodotus.  Egyptian  mummy  cloths, 
under  the  microscope,  are  proved  to  be  linen. 

The  various  operations  through  which  the 
How  Produced,     crop  passes  until  the  flax  is  ready  for  the 
market  are   (1)   pulling,   (2)  rippling,   (3) 
retting,  (4)  drying,  (5)  rolling  and  (6)  scutching. 

As  soon  as  the  flax  is  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  the  "bolls" 
or  capsules  are  removed  by  the  process  of  rippling  or  separat- 
ing the  seeds  and  the  stalk,  which  is  done  with  a  kind  of  comb. 
Retting  or  rotting  is  done  either  by  the  water  process  or  the 
dew  process  and  consists  in  soaking  the  stalks  in  pure  water 
for  10  days  or  two  weeks  until  the  fiber  is  separated  from  the 
core  when  the  stalks  are  spread  over  a  grassy  meadow  to  dry. 
Scutching  is  the  process  by  which  the  fiber  is  freed  from  its 
woody  core  and  rendered  fit  for  the  market  and  consists  of 
two  operations,  breaking  and  then  scutching,  generally  done 
by  scutching  mills. 

The  linen  made  from  flax  is  very  strong  and  lasting, 
Uses,     which  has  made  it  popular  through  the  centuries  for 

clothing,  table  "linen",  bedding,  and  other  household 
purposes. 

The  finest  flax  is  of  a  faint  yellowish  tint,  but  for  most 
purposes  it  is  bleached  white  before  used  for  clothing.  How- 
ever, colored  linen  is  often  fashionable,  when  the  cloth  is  col- 
ored in  the  shades  and  hues  desired. 

Jute  (Corchorus  olitorius  and  C.  capsularis)  came  from 
India.  In  West  Africa  it  finds  an  alluvial  soil  and  rainfall 
suited  to  its  needs.  Algeria  has  a  small  but  growing  indus- 
try. An  experimental  plantation  in  the  Lower  Congo  in  1906 


RAW   PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  185 


has  developed  into  considerable  crops  for  export.  This  ten- 
acious, flossy  fiber  is  used  in  burlap,  sacking  and  cheap  wrap- 
ping paper,  twine,  etc.  It  is  mixed  with  wool  or  silk,  or  both, 
in  fabrics. 

Hemp  (Cannabxs  sativa)  was  introduced  from  Arabia 
and  India.  It  is  cultivated  in  Belgian  Congo,  Mauritius  -and 
Morocco,  where  it  is  called  "Kief"  or  "Kip".  It  is  the  "dak- 
kan"  of  South  Africa.  It  is  used  for  cloth,  cordage,  medicine 
and  bird  seed.  Congo  exported  200  tons  of  hemp  goods  in 
the  first  half  of  1918. 

Raffia  or  Raphia  ( Pedunculata )  is  a  native  palm  of  Mad- 
agascar, now  found  throughout  the  equatorial  belt  in  the 
marshy  valleys,  especially  in  Upper  Congo,  Lualaba  and  Ka- 
sai. 

Raffia  fiber  is  stripped  by  hand  from  the  foot-stalk  of  the 
leaf.  Mats  of  this  fiber  were  used  by  the  German  army  in 
packing  shells.  The  natives  make  mats,  basketry  and  a  coarse 
cloth  by  mixing  raffia  with  silk.  Gardeners  and  nursery  men 
use  raffia  as  a  tying  material. 

Raffia  comes  in  long,  narrow  strips  %  to  %  inch  in  width 
and  from  2%  to  5  feet  in  length.  It  value  depends  on  its 
color,  running  from  pale  yellow  to  a  greenish  tint.  Dyed  strips 
are  now  used  in  teaching  children  to  plait  or  weave  small 
useful  articles.  Patients  in  hospitals  recover  the  use  of  fingers 
by  such  work. 

Raffia  first  appeared  in  the  European  markets  in  1875, 
though  cheap  matting  had  been  an  export  of  Madagascar  as 
early  as  1860. 

The  quantities  and  values  of  the  exports  of  raffia  fiber 
from  Madagascar  in  1913  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

M.  tons 

France  3,564  £80,636 

United  Kingdom 331  8,491 

Germany 1,824  41,773 

Other  countries 242  6,148 


5,961  £137,048 

Before  the  war  raffia  was  quoted  in  the  London  market 
at  prices  ranging  from  £25  to  £35  per  ton. 


186  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 

Madagascar  exported  raffia  fibre  to  the  value  of  £128,075 
during  1918. 

Raphia  (vine  fera)  is  a  species  of  the  numerous  Piassava 
family  of  palms.  It  abounds  in  West  Africa.  Brazil  has  the 
bulk  of  the  industry,  but  a  beginning  has  been  made  in  Sierra 
Leone  and  Gambia.  In  the  former  the  export  value  has  in- 
creased from  $75,238  in  1912  to  §94,500  in  1916  (883  tons). 
In  Gambia  a  British  firm  began  cultivation  in  1915.  The  big 
revolving  brushes  used  by  night  to  clean  American  streets  are 
made  from  piassava. 

Kapok  (ereiodendron  anfractuosum)  is  another  of  the 
many  fiber  trees.  It  is  a  beautiful  ornamental  tree  which  the 
German  colonies  were  the  first  to  cultivate  for  industrial  uses. 
It  is  called  false  cotton  or  vegetable  silk.  Mature  in  six  years, 
its  annual  product  is  three  pounds.  Its  silky  fiber  makes  good 
stuffing  for  pillows  and  mattresses,  also  for  life  belts;  com- 
pressed it  can  support  36  times  its  weight  in  water.  It  dries 
quicker  than  cork.  It  takes  the  place  of  cotton  wool  in  sur- 
gery. Invention  has  made  it  possible  to  weave  its  short  fibers. 
Mixed  with  bombax  cotton  it  is  sold  as  kapok. 

German  East  Africa  exported  in  1912  117,004  pounds 
($14,899).  Senegal  in  1914  exported  26,213  pounds  of  ka- 
pok, and  nearly  as  much  of  other  fibers. 

Coir  (Tamil  kayiru)  abounds  in  Mozambique.  It  is  a 
very  tough  fiber  of  the  husk  of  the  cocoanut  tree-  In  1913 
the  export  through  Lorenco  Marques  was  $7,272;  in  1916, 
?3,530. 

Chamerops  Humilis,  a  dwarf  palm  of  Algeria,  is  in  use 

as  stuffing  for  furniture  and  mattresses.  Nigeria  has  a  palm 
for  cordage  making.  There  is  a  fiber  of  promise  in  the  ban- 
ana (Musa  sapientum). 

Manila  (Musa  textilis)  makes  the  best  rope,  also  "abaca" 
cloth,  and  fine,  light  yellow  paper.  Introduced  from  the 
Philippines,  it  is  found  in  several  colonies  of  Africa,  espec- 
ially in  Madagascar. 

Palma,  a  fan-palm,  producing  a  vegetable  hair,  a  sub- 
stitute for  horse  hair,  is  used  for  paper  and  many  textile  pur 
J>oses. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  187 

Algeria  in  1916  exported  24,905  metric  tons  of  vegetable 
fibers,  valued  at  $600,809.  Considerable  comes  to  America. 
Baobab  (Adansonia  digitata)  is  abundant  in  Lower  Senegal, 
furnishing  food,  drink,  medicine  and  shelter,  as  well  as  cloth- 
ing and  rope.  This  so-called  monkey  bread  tree,  indigenous 
to  Africa,  grows  30  feet  in  diameter.  Its  use  for  cordage  is 
reviving. 

The  Pineapple  (Ananassa  sativa)  is  not  yet  profitable 
for  fiber  uses. 

TOBACCO 

Tobacco  (Nfcotina  Tobacum)  consists  of  the  leaves  of 
several  species  of  this  "weed",  all  prepared  as  narcotic,  for 
smoking,  chewing  or  inhaling  as  snuff.  Tobacco  is  the  most 
extensively  used  of  all  narcotics.  It  is  a  contribution  of  the 
American  Indian  to  civilization.  Since  1600  its  various  uses 
have  been  learned  by  the  entire  world  and  it  is  now  common- 
ly smoked  not  only  by  civilized  people,  but  "even  by  the  sav- 
age tribes  in  the  interior  of  Africa."  Thus  it  has  passed  from 
the  red  American  Indian  to  the  black  African  bushman  and 
the  yellow  Chinese  coolie  through  the  agency  of  the  civilized 
white  man. 

One  of  the  chief  exports  of  the  United  States  to  every 
colony  of  Africa  is  leaf  tobacco  and  cigars,  but  conditions  in 
some  of  the  African  colonies  are  quite  as  favorable  for  grow- 
ing tobacco  as  they  are  in  the  United  States. 

Tobacco  may  be  grown  on  any  agricultural  soil  and 
through  a  wide  range  of  latitude,  but  the  commercial  value 
of  the  product  is  more  influenced  by  the  soil  and  climatic  con- 
ditions than  any  other  agricultural  crop. 

The  leaves  of  tobacco  are  rolled,  twisted  or  pressed  into 
hard  "plugs"  for  chewing;  cut  into  fine  shreds  or  particles 
to  be  used  in  pipes;  rolled  into  tight  or  semi-tight  cylindrical 
forms  known  as  cigars,  for  smoking.  Cigars  are  made  in  va- 
rious ways  from  various  kinds  of  tobacco,  strong,  mild,  or 
medium,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  leaf  and  mode  of 
manufacture.  The  leaves  are  also  dried  and  powdered  into 
snuff,  which  was  formerly  popular  taken  up  the  nose.  An- 
other use  is  packing  it  in  woolen  clothing  of  blankets,  to  keep 
out  moths. 


188  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 


Nicotine,  a  very  poisonous  alkaloid,  is  the  active  principle 
of  tobacco,  and  an  essential  ingredient  in  the  manufacture 
of  certain  sheep  dips.  The  high  proportion  of  nicotine  in  much 
of  the  Outshoorn  tobacco  (due  apparently  to  the  lar^e  per- 
centage of  chlorine  and  nitrogen  in  the  soil),  seems  to  render 
the  district  particularly  adapted  for  experiments  in  this  di- 
rection. South  African  tobacco  is  especially  adapted  to  the 
manufacture  of  this  "dip",  and  oan  become  a  valuable  com- 
modity for  local  use  and  for  export. 

Algeria  uses  American  machinery  and  has  no  laws  of  re- 
straint or  monopoly  in  production  of  tobacco.  Cultivation  be- 
gan in  1844.  Algeria  now  leads  African  production.  Half 
the  product  is  made  into  cigarettes  in  France,  whose  govern- 
ment bought,  in  1914,  $811,372  worth.  In  1917,  from  25,254 
acres  was  a  yield  of  36,155,000  pounds.  One-half  the  crop 
in  1915  was  manufactured  near  the  cataracts.  American 
seeds  have  been  cultivated,  with  improvement  of  quality.  No 
exports  have  yet  been  made,  nor  will  be  until  plenty  of 
skilled  labor  is  obtained. 

In  Algeria  it  is  made  into  cigarettes  for  home  use  (35,- 
000,000  packages)  and  66,000,000  were  exported,  especially 
to  Indo-China.  Production  has  increased  from  593  to  1,874 
tons,  between  1901  and  1916. 

Canary  Islands'  tobacco,  under  high  tariff,  does  not  mee*" 
home  demands.  The  annual  product,  50,000  to  80,000  pounds 
(mostly  on  La  Palma),  could  be  greatly  increased. 

Madagascar  in  1916  claimed  tobacco  as  next  to  hides 
its  chief  product. 

Transvaal  tobacco  is  unsuitable  for  cigars,  but  is  held  as 
the  best  pipe  tobacco  in  the  world.  It  grows  best  in  Pretoria, 
Potchefstroom,  Rustenberg  and  Zoutpansberg. 

Rhodesia  exported,  in  1915,  $206,980  worth  of  tobacco, 
in  1916,  $199,585.  Cultivation  of  cotton  instead  of  tobacco, 
during  the  war,  reduced  the  output,  but  in  1918,  the  crop 
was  estimated  at  500,000  pounds. 

Congo  has  two  kinds  of  tobacco  plants,  Nicotiana,  grow- 
ing to  12  feet,  and  rustica,  smaller,  but  producing  a  preferred, 
darker  tobacco. 

Nyassaland  harvested  7,484  acres  ot  tobacco  (chief  crop) 
in  1917.  Yield  per  acre  is  small,  300  to  500  pounds.  Export 
increased  from  56,826  pounds  in  1905  to  3,308,948  in  1915. 


RAW  PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA  189 


South  Africa  has  large  acreage  but  production  of  tobac- 
co is  less  than  local  demand. 

The  Union  had  a  yield  of  9,000,000  pounds  in  1915,  8,- 
000,000  in  1916,  nearly  7,000,000  in  1917,  and  over  8,000,- 
000  in  1918,  which  was  three-fifths  of  local  requirement. 

Egypt  is  largely  dependent  upon  Turkey  and  Greece  and 
Macedonia  for  leaf  tobacco,  from  which  the  famous  Egyptian 
cigarettes  are  made.  This  is  really  the  only  manufacturing 
industry  of  the  Protectorate.  These  cigarettes  are  largely 
made  by  American  machinery.  In  addition  to  the  immense 
home  consumption,  the  average  export  of  cigarettes  from 
Egypt  IB  valued  at  $2,000,000. 

Egypt  prohibited  tobacco  growing  in  1890,  but  it  has 
since  been  revived  under  government  control  and  assistance. 
Along  the  Nile  in  lower  Egypt  are  experimental  tobacco 
farms,  and  the  manufacture  of  cigarettes  has  become  one  of 
the  principal  industries  of  the  country.  A  large  part  of  the 
export  of  these  cigarettes  formerly  went  to  Germany. 

The  Italians  follow  the  Turk's  state  control  of  the  planta- 
tions in  Tripoli. 

Nigeria,  in  the  north,  carefully  cultivates,  but  unskil- 
fully cures  the  tobacco,  which  is  unfit  for  export. 

German  East  Africa,  Somaliland,  Uganda  and  Angola 
grow  tobacco  on  a  "small  scale." 

Mozambique,  Abyssinia  and  the  Islands  are  greatly  in- 
creasing their  output. 

VANILLA  AND  OTHER  ESSENCES 

Vanilla  (Vanilla  aromatica  and  V.  planifolia)  is  native 
of  the  tropical  forests  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  where 
it  is  cultivated  in  vast  quantities. 

In  1819  living  plants  were  taken  to  Java,  and  in  1836  to 
Keunion  and  then  to  Mauritius.  It  adapted  itself  to  the  soil 
of  both  islands,  but  was  not  successfully  cultivated  until  1850, 
when  the  process  of  pollinating  the  flowers  was  learned.  Van- 
illa is  now  cultivated  in  nearly  all  tropical  countries  where 
there  is  plenty  of  moisture  and  a  temperature  that  never  falls 
below  65  degrees  F.  Commercial  vanilla  is  almost  wholly 
produced  from  cultivated  plants. 


190  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


The  product  vanilla  is  obtained  from  a  long,  running 
plant  with  flexible,  succulent  stems,  which  thrive  running 
along  the  ground,  but  quickly  climb  any  tree  which  lends  its 
support.  The  stem  is  about  as  thick  as  a  man's  finger  and 
very  juicy.  The  plant  bears  at  from  two  to  four  years,  when 
its  branches  blossom  and  fruit,  which  they  continue  to  do  for 
about  10  years.  The  fruit  grows  in  clusters  of  three  to  12, 
which  look  something  like  diminutive  bunches  of  very  slender 
bananas.  When  almost  mature,  nearly  four  months  after  the 
blossoms  fall  off,  they  are  quickly  gathered  to  prevent  open- 
ing and  spilling  of  the  seeds.  If  gathered  too  early  the  flavor 
is  not  good,  so  great  skill  is  needed  in  knowing  just  the  prop- 
er time.  Straggling  fruit  missed  in  the  picking,  is  afterward 
gathered  as  an  inferior  harvest.  The  original  crop  is  sold  to 
the  "curers",  who  take  the  product  in  charge  to  mature  it  for 
commercial  use. 

There  are  various  methods  of  curing  but  the  object  in  all 
is  to  "sweat"  the  fruit  numerous  times  by  steaming  or  in 
sweatboxes,  in  order  to  drive  out  the  moisture,  and  still  furth- 
er sweating  is  obtained  under  woolen  covers,  alternated  by 
exposure  to  sunshine  or  drying  ovens.  When  sufficiently  dry 
the  pods  are  tied  in  bundles  for  market  They  are  assorted 
for  packing,  the  first  quality  pods  being  oily,  strongly  per- 
fumed, black  and  without  defects ;  after  this  the  pods  are  as- 
sorted according  to  length  and  then  they  are  made  up  into 
bundles,  each  packet  containing  50;  the  packets  are  packed 
into  tin  boxes  containing  85  pounds  of  vanilla  each-  The 
tins  are  soldered  up  and  put  in  wooden  cases  holding  three 
boxes  apiece  and  are  ready  for  shipment. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  perfume  or  essence  of 
How  Prepared,  vanilla  one  pound  of  pods  is  cut  up  small  and 
put  into  a  gallon  of  pure  alcohol  known  as 
60  over-proof,  and  shaken  daily  for  four  weeks  when  the 
spirits  may  be  strained  off  quite  clear  and  bright.  It  is  then 
suitable  for  flavoring  or  when  blended  with  other  scents, 
z»akes>  fragrant  perfumery. 

Extracts  are  preparations  obtained  by  evaporation  of  all 
material  but  the  concentrated  substances  of  the  product  ex- 
tracted. These  preparations  are  usually  prepared  from  pow- 
dered dry  leaves,  flowers  or  fruit,  by  exhaustion  with  solvents 
(water,  alcohol  or  ether),  by  percolation. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  191 


Another  method  is  to  obtain  juice  from  fresh  plants  by 
bruising  them  in  a  stone  mortar  with  a  hard-wood  pestle  until 
the  mass  is  reduced  to  a  smooth  pulp,  which  is  then  expressed 
in  canvas  bags. 

Vanilla  extracts,  besides  their  familiar  uses,  serve  in 
flavoring  tobacco  and  dyspepsia  tonics.  The  best  and  largest 
product  is  from  the  islands,  Reunion,  Mauritius  and  Mada- 
gascar. Seychelles  has  a  poorer  quality  yet,  The  export  was 
66,000  pounds,'  in  1906,  and  $54,000  worth  in  1916.  The 
synthetic  vanillas  and  the  tonka  bean,  for  adulteration,  have 
reduced  production. 

Comoro  Island  produces  vanilla  at  an  altitude  of  2,500 
feet  In  1902  Anjouan  gathered  18  tons,  from  1,200,000 
plants. 

Mauritius  in  1915  exported  to  London,  vanilla  valued  at 
$9,265. 

Reunion's  export  of  vanilla  is  second  in  quality  and  quan- 
tity to  that  of  Mexico — 165,000  pounds  in  1905,  and  154,000 
in  1909. 

Madagascar,  including  its  islands  of  Nossi-Be  and  Com- 
oro exported  one-fourth  of  the  world  production  in  1917 — 
500  tons.  In  1916  the  price  ran  from  $1.05  to  $2.00  per 
pound. 

VEGETABLE  PERFUMERIES 

Essential  oils,  used  in  perfumery,  are  extracted  from 
flowers,  fruit,  stems  and  roots,  which  Africa  grows  luxur- 
iantly, 

Algeria  formerly  distilled  from  bigaradier  (Acacia  for- 
nesiana)  and  rose  geranium  (Geraniceae  pelargonium)  but 

the  industry  faltered  during  the  war. 

Neroli,  a  volatile  oil  of  Algeria,  distilled  from  flowers  of 
the  bitter  orange,  is  used  both  for  perfume  and  flavoring. 

Bergamot  (Citrus  bergamia  rossi)  is  a  specimen  of  the 
citrus  family  partaking  of  the  properties  of  both  the  orangp 
and  the  lemon.  The  fruit  is  lemon  color  and  it  has  a  bitter, 
acrid  taste.  It  is  not  known  in  a  wild  state  and  its  origin  is 
obscure.  Oil  of  bergamot  is  obtained  from  the  rind  by  cold 
expression  and  an  inferior  quality  is  afterward  made  from 
the  crushed  rinds  by  the  aid  of  steam. 


192  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


Tunis  exported  in  1913,  600,000  pounds  of  volatile  oils 
and  extracts. 

South  Africa  in  1917  exported  9,876  pounds  ($2,400) 
of  dried  blossoms. 

Madagascar  exports  dried  flowers,  especially  ylang- 
ylang,  a  native  of  the  Philippines. 

Zanzibar  produces  nutmeg  oil. 

Civet  (vcera  csvetta)  secreted  by  the  civet  cat,  is  ex- 
ported from  Abyssinia  and  Soudan. 

RUBBER 

Although  rubber  has  been  known  for  400  years  it  has 
been  used  only  for  a  century.  The  early  explorers  of  Amer- 
ica found  the  Indians  of  Haiti  making  balls  of  rubber  for 
games.  The  first  use  of  rubber  in  Africa  appears  to  have 
been  for  drum-stick  heads.  In  the  United  States  rubber  was 
manufactured  for  erasing  pencil  marks,  then  for  boots 
(Goodyear)  for  marines,  then  for  coats  (Mackintosh)  to  keep 
off  the  rain,  then  came  a  multitude  of  uses  in  the  arts  and 
industries,  and  finally  automobiles  appeared  to  start  a  re- 
markable boom. 

^' Brazil ••M  has  been  the  chief  source  of  commercial 
rubber.  There  is  large  production  in  Central  America,  Vene- 
zuela, Columbia,  the  Philippines,  British  Antilles  and  Dutch 
Indies.  Africa  now  stands  third.  African  rubber  first  became 
prominent  in  the  market  in  1885.  About  1890  the  wild  rub- 
ber trees  of  the  Congo  began  to  be  exploited. 

Wild  rubber  from  Africa  comes  from  the  funtumia  and 
landolphia,  the  former  a  tree,  the  latter  more  like  a  vine 
which  climbs  on  other  trees.  Landolphia  produces  most  of  the 
wild  rubber.  A  rubber  tree  begins  to  yield  latex  at  the  age 
of  six  years.  Plantation  rubber  trees  are  set  out  550  to  the 
acre,  with  cocoa,  cotton  or  coffee  trees  between  the  rows. 

Only  since  1907  has  the  cultivated  crop  of  rubber  been 
on  the  market,  but  now  throughout  Africa  it  is  rapidly  super- 
seding the  wild.  Of  the  world's  crop  of  200,000  tons,  one- 
fourth  is  the  wild  product.  It  is  usually  of  inferior  quality, 
due  to  neglect  in  the  removal  of  sticks,  dirt,  resin,  etc. 

The  latex,  or  caoutchouc,  is  obtained  in  different  ways. 
Sometimes  pieces  of  trees  or  vines  are  macerated.  Ordinar- 
ily incisions  in  the  trunk  permit  the  ooze  to  fill  the  attached 


*At  present  the  leading  source  of  plantation  rubber  is   the   Malay   Peainsula 
nnd  East  Indies. 


RAW    PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  193 


cups.  Clots  are  sometimes  formed  by  allowing  the  trickle  to 
coagulate  on  the  trunk.  Sprinkling  or  brushing  the  incision 
with  acid  (lemon,  sorrel  or  salt),  quickly  forms  a  lump,  which 
is  ready  at  once  for  packing  for  shipment.  Rubber  is  obtained 
by  a  physical  process  of  pounding  and  separating  the  latex; 
and  a  chemical  process  of  coagulation  by  the  use  of  alum, 
salt,  sulphuric  acid,  citric  and  acetic  juices. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  made  at  the  Imperial  In- 
stitute of  a  fair  sample  of  rubber  produced  by  Landolphia 
Kirkii  in  the  Mozambique  Company's  Territories,  East  Af- 
rica, i.  e.,  moisture,  5  per  cent,  caoutchouc,  85.  6  per  cent.; 
resin,  5.5  per  cent. ;  proteids.  1.3  per  cent. ;  insoluble,  2.7  per 
cent.;  ash,  .46  per  cent. 

Protective  laws  have  been  made  in  most  districts  for- 
bidding cutting  down  of  plants,  over-tapping  or  cutting  out 
of  season.  Bush  fires,  locusts,  tornadoes  and  droughts  are 
common.  The  laws  in  the  great  forests  are  not  easily  execut- 
ed. Schools  to  educate  the  natives  in  economical  methods  of 
harvesting  rubber  are  popular.  The  careful  inspection  by 
the  customs  service  prevents  export  of  impure  (10  per  cent-) 
and  over-moist  (15  per  cent,  water)  rubber. 

In  the  Congo  the  law  requires  replacement  by  150  new 
plants  to  every  ton  of  rubber  produced. 

The  natives  have  destroyed  almost  entirely  the  wild  rub- 
ber trees  in  Madagascar,  Mozambique,  Zanzibar,  and  there  is 
a  shrinkage  in  the  production  of  wild  trees,  indicating  that 
the  zenith  has  been  reached,  and  that  wild  rubber  is  on  the 
decline. 

British  East  Africa  has  several  rubber  plantations.  Ceara 
(which  flourishes  on  poor,  dry  soil)  and  the  Para  plants  are 
most  successful. 

Nyassaland  and  German  East  Africa  cultivate  Ceara. 
The  first  exported  in  1915-'16,  46,002  pounds.  The  latter  had 
19,000,000  trees  in  1913,  6,000,000  of  which  were  the  manihot 
glaziorii  variety.  There  are  other  wild  rubber  plants — 
clitanria,  ficus,  castilloa,  hevea,  kickxia,  etc.  The  best  wild 
rubber  is  from  near  Tanganyika,  Donde  and  Kilva. 

Kamerun,  in  1912,  received  $2,730,389  for  rubber  (near- 
ly one-half  of  total  exports,  rubber  passing  ivory). 

Uganda  had  in  1916,  3,335  acres  under  native  cultiva- 
tion, to  5,706  acres  (1917)  under  European. 


194  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


Portuguese  Africa  mainly  raises  wild  rubber.  The  Val- 
our separator  is  coming  into  use  in  the  M'punga  forest. 

Mozambique  rubber  is  listed  as  "black"  or  "red"  Afri- 
cans. It  is  impure  and  cheap.  Undeveloped  good  plants 
exist  in  quantity. 

Madagascar  forests  are  full  of  rubber  plants,  but  the 
mixing  of  poor  latex  with  good  has  lowered  values.  Re-for- 
esting and  cultivation  can  develop  the  great  possibilities  of 
the  wild  and  plantation  rubber. 

Gambia  has  an  indigenous  vine,  Landolphia  Hendelotii, 
and  many  other  plants,  native  or  exotic. 

Sierra  Leone  has  the  Landolphia  and  Clitandra  vines, 
also  the  West  African  tree,  Funtumia  elasiici.  "Manoh  twist" 
is  made  by  stamping  the  coagulated  latex  with  the  feet,  into 
cakes,  which,  cut  in  strips,  are  wound  into  balls. 

The  Gold  Coast  has  trees  and  vines  in  extensive  forests. 

Funtumia  Elastlca  is  tapped  as  high  as  50  feet,  by  the 
double  herring  system.  The  drip,  unstrained,  coagulates  in 
a  pit  plastered  with  clay,  producing  an  inferior  rubber.  New 
methods  tend  toward  improvement. 

Nigeria  has  done  good  work  in  educating  the  natives 
in  rubber  production.  In  the  south  there  are  nurseries  for 
rubber  seedlings.  The  northern  product  is  inferior. 

French  West  Africa  made  its  first  export  from  Guinea 
in  1888.  All  the  other  colonies  are  producing  under  strict 
laws. 

Most  of  the  Senegal  rubber  comes  from  Casamance.  From 
1896  to  1899  inclusive  the  average  production  of  rubber  in 
Casamance  amounted  to  252,936  kilograms  annually,  valued 
at  940,222  francs.  For  the  whole  colony  the  average  produc- 
tion in  the  period  1896-1899  was  278,005  kilograms,  worth 
1,084,219  francs. 

The  rubber  is  derived  from  two  species  of  landolphia, 
the  most  common  known  as  toll,  the  vines  of  which  grow  in 
bushes  on  the  plains  and  clearings.  The  latex  is  extracted  from 
the  roots.  Although  rubber  has  been  cultivated  in  Casamance 
since  1883  there  is  no  system  of  protection  or  propagation, 
and  unless  precautions  are  taken  there  is  danger  that  the 
plant  will  disappear.  The  next  most  important  variety  is 
dob,  which  is  less  elastic,  but  which  is  in  demand.  Attempts 
to  introduce  Ceara  rubber  have  been  tried  without  success. 


RAW   PRO  DUCTS   OF    AFRICA  195 


Congo  rubber  finds  a  ready  market.  It  was  formerly  the 
chief  producer  of  wealth.  In  1907  there  were  12,000,000 
trees  (estimated).  United  States  and  Liverpool  buy  the  bulk 
of  the  production. 

Rubber  comes  in  balls,  slabs,  strips,  rolls,  cakes,  twists 
and  bags.  The  best  of  the  African  rubber  comes  from  the 
Congo  under  such  trade  names  as  Wamba,  thimbles,  Equa- 
teur,  kasai,  Assiwimi,  Nelle  strips,  Mongalla. 

In  1907  the  Belgian  Congo  exported  1,600  tons  of  rub- 
ber. 

In  1914,  the  Belgian  Congo  exported  rubber  to  the  value 
of  $2,200,000. 

In  1915,  the  Belgian  Congo  exported  rubber  to  the  value 
of  $2,300,000. 

In  1915,  Belgian  Congo  exported  1,929,199  pounds  root 
rubber  (876,909  kg.). 

In  1915,  Belgian  Congo  exported  2,864,270  pounds  vine 
rubber  (1,301,942  kg.). 

Belgian  Congo  exported,  1920,  rubber  to  the  value  of 
5,396,397  francs  (1,121,679  kilos). 

French  Congo,  1920,  exported  2,122  tons  of  wild  rubber. 

In  1918  (first  6  mos.),  Belgian  Congo  exported  12  tons 
of  rubber  goods. 

In  the  forests  of  Liberia  are  to  be  found  rubber-bearing 
vines  and  trees  of  22  species.  Liberia  exported  in  1910,  115,- 
785  pounds  of  rubber;  1911,  103,032  pounds  of  rubber;  1912, 
93,822  pounds  of  rubber;  1913,  116,712  pounds  of  rubber; 
1914,  8,003  pounds  of  rubber;  1915,  10,081  pounds  of  rubber. 
In  1913,  the  value  of  the  crop  was  $30,000;  in  1917.  it  was 
$17,000. 

In  the  southern  part  of  Abyssinia  are  to  be  found  many 
rubber  plants  but  as  yet  of  little  value  commercially. 

SPICES 

African  countries  do  not  rank  in  the  foreground  of  trade 
in  spices  and  herbs,  like  the  East  Indies,  although  there  is  not 
a  spice  known  that  can  not  be  raised,  and  profitably  so,  in 
Africa.  The  negroes  have  long  used  herbs  and  have  many 
superstitions  concerning  their  curative,  as  well  as  their  witch- 
like  powers. 


196  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF  AFRICA 

The  ability  of  West  Africa  to  keep  the  world  supplied 
with  pungent  spices  was  the  first  inducement  for  the  English 
to  settle  there,  says  Sir  Henry  Johnstone.  Islands,  like  Maur- 
itius and  Reunion,  are  famous  for  their  spices. 

Mustard  (Sinapss  nigra  and  S.  alba,  from  the  natural  or- 
der Cruciferse)  produces  a  small  seed  (proverbial  in  Scrip- 
ture). It  is  beginning  to  be  a  paying  commodity,  especially 
in  the  south.  Powdered  mustard  is  used  as  a  condiment  on 
the  table,  for  pickles,  and  medicinally. 

Pepper  has  been  used  in  India  and  other  Asiatic  countries 
for  thousands  of  years.  Peppers  are  of  various  kinds,  as  black 
old  white  pepper  (Piper  mgrum) ;  long  pepper  (Piper  long- 
urn),  native  of  Malabar  and  Bengal;  cayenne  pepper  (Capsi- 
cum annum).  Black  pepper  is  the  dried  fruit  of  the  plant 
which  bears  it,  and  white  pepper  is  made  from  the  same  ber- 
ries- 
Peppers  of  all  kinds  flourish  in  Africa,  and  form  an 
article  of  export. 

Melegueta  Pepper  or  Grains  of  Paradise  are  the  aromatic 
seeds  of  one  or  more  species  of  the  genus  amomum,  of  the 
order  Scitamineae,  both  natives  of  West  Africa.  The  seeds 
of  both  species  appear  to  be  used  and  sold  commercially  un- 
der the  name  of  grains  of  Paradise.  Pepper  is  widely  dis- 
tributed in  Sierra  Leone  and  Lower  Guinea  as  far  as  Angola. 
It  has  never  been  cultivated  in  any  quantity  anywhere  even 
in  West  Africa.  In  early  days  the  spice  was  conveyed  over- 
land to  Tripoli  and  shipped  from  Monti  di  Barca  on  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  as  the  Italians  did  not  know  whence  it  came  they 
called  it  grains  of  Paradise. 

In  the  16th  century  English  voyagers  traded  to  the  Gold 
Coast  for  gold,  ivory,  pepper  and  grains  of  Paradise.  Now 
grains  of  Paradise  are  shipped  chiefly  from  the  settlements 
on  the  Gold  Coast,  the  most  important  being  Cape  Castle  and 
Accra. 

Residents  of  hot  climates  crave  highly-seasoned  food. 
The  natives  of  Senegal  are  very  fond  of  pepper  and  it  has 
been  exported  from  Senegal. 


E. AW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  197 


CHILIES,  RED  PEPPERS 

Red  or  cayenne  peppers,  under  the  name  of  chilies,  are 
largely  grown  in  the  dry  and  rocky  part  of  Zanzibar  and 
Pemba.  In  1906  chilies  to  the  value  of  £19,000  were  export- 
ed but  the  next  export  in  1908  was  of  the  value  of  £485  only. 

Sierra  Leone  pepper  is  yellowish  red  when  dried,  that  of 
Zanzibar  being  dull  dark  red.  Natal  red  pepper  until  recent- 
ly supplied  most  of  the  bright  red  cayenne  pepper  in  com- 
merce. 

Zanzibar  chilies  are  considered  the  hottest  in  the  world- 
This  island  exports  annually  nearly  $50,000  worth.  New 
York  controls  the  market  for  the  exports.  Chilies  grow  wild 
in  East  and  Central  Africa  and  are  also  cultivated  in  many 
sections.  In  1917  there  were  650  acres  under  chilie  cultiva- 
tion in  Nyassaland.  The  pepper  market  of  Sierra  Leone  has 
again  been  very  good. 

Cayenne  pepper  is  the  finely  ground  powder  of  chilies  or 
capsicum.  Japan  and  Zanzibar  pepper  is  made  from  "bird's- 
eye  chili".  The  ripe  fruits  are  dried  in  the  sun,  then  in  an 
oven.  When  dry  they  are  ground  to  a  fine  powder  and  mixed 
with  wheat  flour  packed  in  jars  in  a  compressed  state  for  ex- 
portation. 

The  chief  use  of  capsicums  is  as  a  spice.  Cayenne 
Uses,  pepper  is  used  for  feeding  birds  and  poultry  also.  In 

medicnie  it  is  chiefly  used  in  the  form  of  a  gargle,  oc- 
casionally as  a  liniment  and  internally  to  promote  digestion. 

Chilies  and  capsicums  are  cultivated  all  over  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  world.  The  cultivation  might  well  be  taken 
up  as  a  subsidiary  or  catch-crop,  but  should  be  rotated  with 
other  crops- 

CLOVES 

The  cloves  of  commerce  are  the  unopened  flower  buds  of 
the  aromatic  clove  tree  (Jambosa  caryophyllus). 

The  clove  tree  appears  to  be  indigenous  only  to  the  Mo- 
lucca islands.  It  was  introduced  into  Zanzibar  and  Mauri- 
tius in  the  18th  century,  and  has  there  become  the  source  of 
the  largest  part  of  the  supply  of  cloves  in  the  world.  Penang 
cloves  bring  a  higher  price  than  those  of  Zanzibar. 


198  RAW     PRODUCTS     OF    AFRICA 


Zanzibar  cloves  are  very  dry,  larger  and  redder  than 
Pemba  cloves,  hence  are  known  as  "Zanzibar  redheads".  Ex- 
ports from  Zanzibar  in  1890  were  4,372,515  Ibs. ;  from  Pem- 
ba, 13,509,335  Ibs.  Zanzibar  cloves  lose  about  eight  per  cent, 
in  weight  on  the  passage  to  Europe.  Besides  the  cloves, 
clove-stalks  are  shipped  in  immense  quantities. 

Cultivation  in  the  Seychelles  has  been  abandoned;  also 
in  Reunion.  In  1904,  25,304  Ibs.  were  exported  from  Re- 
union to  France. 

In  Madagascar  clove  trees  grow  abundantly  in  wet  sec- 
tions and  bring  good  returns,  but  as  the  tree  is  of  very  slow 
growth  no  great  amount  of  capital  has  yet  been  put  into  them. 
In  1906  Madagascar  exported  over  100,000  pounds  to  France; 
in  1917,  about  150,000  pounds- 

The  primary  use  of  cloves  is  as  a  spice.     Zanzibar 
Uses,     cloves  produce  15  to  17.5  per  cent,  of  oil.    The  oil  of 
Madagascar  cloves  is  specially  favored  by  French  per- 
fumers as  having  a  particularly  agreeable  perfume. 

Essence  of  cloves  for  flavoring  purposes  is  made  by  dis- 
solving four  ounces  clove  oil  in  one  gallon  of  spirit. 

Cloves  are  aromatic,  carminative  and  stimulating.  Moth- 
er cloves  are  the  dried  fruits  of  the  clove;  they  contain  less 
oil  than  the  buds  but  are  exported  for  their  oil. 

GINGER 

(linger  (Zingiber  officinale)  is  an  herbaceous  prennial 
plant  having  a  white,  pungent,  aromatic  root  covered  with 
scale  leaves  which  emits  at  intervals  leafy  stems  usually  about 
two  feet  tall  and  rather  slender.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest 
spices  known  to  Europeans.  It  is  cultivated  successfully  in 
India,  Malay  Peninsula,  China,  Fiji  and  North  Australia,  in 
West  Africa  and  as  far  south  as  Natal,  in  the  West  Indies 
and  Central  America. 

Dried  ginger  is  prepared  for  the  market  by  scalding  the 
roots  in  hot  water,  then  spreading  them  in  the  sun  to  dry. 
Cured  ginger  is  prepared  by  drying  the  roots  in  the  sun  each 
day  for  a  week. 

In  Africa  attempts  have  been  made  to  cultivate  the  plant 
comercially  in  Sierra  Leone.  In  1906,  618  tons  of  dried  ginger 
valued  at  £11,578  were  exported.  The  cultivation  here  seems 
to  be  increasing. 


RAW     P  K  0  D  U  C  T  S     OF     AFRICA  199 


The  average  price  of  ginger  in  the  year  1916  was  £36  a 
cwt.,  which  is  nearly  double  the  average  price  during  the  pre- 
ceding four  years.  As  a  result,  the  quantity  exported  from 
Sierra  Leone  rose  from  567  tons,  valued  at  £8,091  in  1915  to 
971  tons,  valued  at  £25,814.  Of  the  quantity  exported,  669 
tons  went  to  the  United  States  and  289  tons  to  the  United 
Kingdom. 

In  1912,  Sierra  Leone  exported  ginger  to  the  value  .of 
$218,308;  in  1913,  to  the  value  of  $172,587;  in  1914,  to  the 
value  of  $76,099. 

Sierra  Leone  exported,  1920,  ginger  valued  at  £60,292 
(1,432  tons). 

Ginger  is  one  of  the  most  popular  flavoring  agents 
Uses,  known,  entering  into  confectionery,  ginger  beer,  gin- 
ger champagne  and  other  .beverages.  Oil  of  ginger 
serves  as  a  basis  for  tinctures  or  essences  of  ginger.  Ginger 
contains  three  valuable  constituents,  starch,  oil  and  resin. 
Ginger  is  known  as  "coated"  and  "uncoated"  or  "peeled". 
The  varieties  of  commerce  are  Jamaica,  Barbadoes,  Malabar, 
African  and  East  Indian.  Jamaica  ginger  is  considered  the 
best,  but  African  is  of  good  quality,  some  of  it  excellent. 

The  nutmeg  (Myristica  fragrans,  or  M.  aromatica)  is  a 
small 'trees  that  furnishes  two  valuable  spices — nutmeg  and 
mace-  When  the  fruit  is  nearly  ripe  the  husk  opens  and  shows 
a  bright  red  network  lining  which  covers  a  hard  thin  shell. 
The  red  covering  is  mace,  the  spice  of  commerce,  and  the  shell 
under  it  covers  the  kernels  or  nutmeg,  the  other  popular  spice. 

Mace  possesses  most  of  the  qualities  of  nutmegs,  though 
not  in  so  marked  a  degree,  and  is  used  much  in  the  same  way. 
In  countries  where  it  is  grown  the  entire  fruit  is  boiled  and 
used  for  food. 

There  are  yearly  exports  of  both  nutmegs  and  mace  from 
Zanzibar.  The  industry  has  been  tried  from  time  to  time  in 
West  Africa  with  more  or  less  success  and  possibilities  in  all 
that  region  are  good.  Mauritius  and  other  islands  have 
exports. 

The  Congo  has  small  exports  but  the  industry  in  this 
country  is  capable  of  rich  reward. 

Cinnamon  is  the  inner  bark  of  an  evergreen  tree  (Cinna- 
momum  zeylanicum),  a  native  of  Ceylon,  where  it  has  been 
cultivated  for  thousands  of  years. 


200  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


Cinnamon  is  produced  in  considerable  quantities  in  Zan- 
zibar, Mauritius,  Reunion  and  in  the  Seychelles,  "a  wanderer 
from  the  French  gardens  of  the  18th  century." 

Allspice  or  Pimento  (Pimenta  omcinalis)  is  the  dried  un- 
ripe fruit  of  a  tree  native  to  West  India  islands,  whence  it  has 
spread. 

Calabash  (Monedora  myristica)  seeds  are  used  as  spice 
and  are  called  calabash  nutmegs;  also  used  in  medicine.  In 
1915,  Gambia  exported  calabashes  to  the  value  of  $2,300. 
The  dried  calabash  gourd  is  used  for  pipes,  cups  and  many 
utensils. 

HERBS 

Cumin  (Cuminum  cyminum),  native  of  Egypt  and  Syria, 
is  a  dwarf  apiaceous  plant  long  cultivated  for  its  seeds,  which 
have  a  bitter  bug-like  taste  and  aromatic  flavor,  good  for  sea- 
soning. Cumin  seed  was  well  known  to  the  ancients  and  is 
mentioned  by  Isaiah.  It  has  been  largely  replaced  in  medi- 
cinal use  by  caraway  seed,  which  has  a  more  agreeable  flav- 
or. Cumin  is  exported  to  Europe  from  Morocco  ($46,000 
worth  in  1913),  Sicily,  Bombay  and  Calcutta. 

Morocco  exported,  1920,  cumin  valued  at  2,370,317 
francs. 

Anise  (Pimpinetta  anisum)  is  a  small  plant  indigenous 
to  Egypt  and  cultivated  in  Spain,  Malta,  and  many  other 
countries. 

Turmeric  (Curcuma  longa),  is  an  East  Indian  plant  of 
the  ginger  family,  raised  chiefly  for  its  aromatic  root;  it  is 
found  in  northern  African  countries. 

Caraway  (Carum  carvi)  seeds  are  used  for  flavoring 
bread,  cakes  and  other  foods  ,and  as  a  carminative.  The  plant 
is  indigenous  to  the  Himalayas  and  the  Caucasus.  It  is  also 
found  throughout  Siberia  and  Europe,  and  is  extensively  cul- 
tivated in  Holland,  England,  the  United  States  and  Morocco. 

Canary  Grass  (Phalaris  "Canariensis)  seeds,  used  chiefly 
for  caged  birds,  are  raised  in  greatest  quantities  in  Turkey, 
but  also  in  less  degree  in  California,  Portugal  and  Morocco, 
which,  in  1913,  exported  canary  seeds  to  the  value  of  $107,- 
000. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  201 


Chicory  is  dried  fruit  of  Chichorium  intybus.  It  is  native 
to  Europe  and  Asia,  but  grows  in  the  waste  places  of  Africa 
and  North  America.  Chicory  is  similar  to  the  dandelion ;  its 
chief  use  is  as  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

Chicory  is  being  cultivated  in  South  Africa  near  Port 
Elizabeth.  Modern  machinery  has  been  set  up  for  prepar- 
ing the  root. 

Coriander  (Coriandrum  sativum)  is  native  of  Asia.  The 
aromatic  seeds  and  dried  fruit  of  this  plant  are  used  in  medi- 
cine and  for  pastry,  and  other  culinary  purposes-  Russia  pro- 
duces the  greatest  crop  but  Morocco  furnishes  the  earliest 
crop,  which  is  marketed  in  London  in  July  and  August,  two 
months  before  the  Russian  importation.  In  1913,  Morocco 
exported  coriander  to  the  value  of  $110,000. 

Fenugreek  (Trigonella  Fcenum-Graecum)  is  the  dried 
ripe  seeds  of  a  small  herb  which  is  native  to  southwestern 
Asia  and  extensively  cultivated  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  southern 
Europe.  This  aromatic  product  is  chiefly  used  in  medicines, 
but  also  by  some  cooks  in  certain  food  mixtures. 

In  1913  Morocco  exported  fenugreek  to  the  value  of 
$50,000. 

DYES 

Dyes  are  extracts  from  vegetation  in  which  color  is 
concentated  or  from  animals,  but  chiefly  from  coal  tar. 

These  substances  are  used  for  coloring  cloth,  paper, 
leather,  wood,  hair,  pictures.  In  order  to  make  color  perma- 
nent in  the  materials  in  which  it  is  used,  a  "mordant",  is  used 
usually  chemicals,  as  alum;  soda,  Turkey  red  oil,  tin,  iron, 
tannin. 

The  dyes  of  Africa  include  indigo,  Turkey  red,  henna, 
acacia,  camwood,  barwood,  madder,  galls,  tumeric,  safflowejr, 
saffron,  rocou,  archil,  cochineal,  sepia,  mineral  dyes. 

Indigo  (Indigofera  tinctoria)  is  one  of 

Production  of  Dyes  the  best  known  colors.  The  extract  of 
by  Countries.  indigo  is  obtained  from  the  plants  by 

cutting  them  just  after  blooming,  laying 
them  in  strata  in  a  tank  or  vat,  covering  them  with  water, 
when  they  are  left  to  ferment  for  from  10  to  18  hours.  When 
ready  in  this  state  the  mass  is  drawn  into  another  receptacle 


202  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


where  it  is  constantly  agitated  until  the  blue  color  is  thor- 
oughly uniform.  The  water  is  then  drawn  off  and  the  indigo 
is  boiled  to  prevent  fermentation,  then  dried  and  shaped  into 
molds  to  be  packed  for  the  market.  Indigo  requires  no  mor- 
dant. 

It  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  earth,  ashes  or  pow- 
dered slate. 

Pure  indigo  is  very  dark — almost  black — and  it  leaves 
no  sediment  in  the  water. 

Indigo  is  chiefly  produced  in  Bengal,  Java,  Philippines, 
Egypt,  Abyssinia,  West  Indies  and  Central  America.  Indigo 
has  been  known  in  Egypt  and  the  East  from  very  early  times. 

Ribbons  found  on  Egyptian  mummies  5,000  years  old 
preserve  the  blue  color  of  the  indigo  with  which  they  were 
dyed.  The  natural  product  is  still  used  locally,  blue  being 
a  favorite  color  of  the  Egyptians.  In  1911  the  exports  of  in- 
digo amounted  to  $125,900  in  value. 

In  the  Congo  indigo  has  long  been  raised,  but  has  fallen 
off  in  production  and  exportation.  It  grows  well  in  all  tropi- 
cal countries  of  Africa  and  is  raised  chiefly  by  native  labor. 
Much  of  the  coarse  cotton  cloth  made  by  the  natives  is  dyed  a 
deep  blue  with  indigo. 

In  Senegal  indigo  was  raised  many  years  ago  for  dyeing 
cotton  cloth,  but  the  first  cotton  experiments  in  this  country 
failing  to  produce  paying  results,  indigo  cultivation  also  fell 
off. 

As  a  local  product  of  consumption,  indigo  is  especially 
cultivated  in  the  river  regions-  A  European,  Mr.  Mohler,  a 
farmer  at  Kouma  (1888),  declared  that  40  meters  cultivated 
in  indigo  yielded  him  92  breads  which  sold  for  0  fr.  25  per 
bread  at  Dagana. 

Indigo  bread  from  Senegal  finds  favor  in  Europe,  though 
*aid  to  contain  many  impurities. 

In  Nigeria  indigo  grows  wild  and  is  cultivated  in  small 
patches  by  the  natives. 

In  West  Africa  indigo  is  grown  in  several  sections  and  in 
Gambia  is  commercially  important. 

The  Cape  Verde  Islands  produce  indigo  in  less  quanti- 
ties than  formerly. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  203 


Madder  (Rubia  tinctorum)  is  a  perennial  herb,  native 
to  the  Levant,  and  cultivated  in  many  countries.  The  roots 
are  long  and  slender  and  bright  blood  red.  The  fresh  roots 
contain  a  yellow  coloring  matter.  Alizarin,  which  constitutes 
its  most  important  property,  crystallises  into  orange-red  nee- 
dles soluble  in  boiling  water,  alcohol  and  ether.  Coal  tar  has 
greatly  displaced  the  vegetable  product. 

Several  other  dyes  are  prepared  from  other  species  of 
the  madder  family,  namely  morinda  (M.  citrifolia).  This  dye 
is  said  to  be  useful  in  guarding  against  insects.  It  is  also 
used  as  medicine.  Besides  yellow,  every  shade  of  red,  purple 
and  lilac  can  be  obtained  from  the  madder  family. 

Madder  roots  are  obtained  throughout  Central  Africa. 

Henna  (Lawsonia  inermis)  is  a  fragrant  white  flowering 
shrub  of  Southern  Asia  and  adjacent  regions,  which  produces 
from  its  leaves  a  reddish-orange  dye.  Henna  is  used  by  the 
Buddhists  and  Mohammedans  in  their  religious  ceremonies. 
It  is  the  ancient  gopher-wood  of  Scripture. 

Both  Orientals  and  some  African  natives  stain  their  teeth 
and  finger-nails  an  orange  brown  with  it.  Henna  is  used  com- 
mercially for  dyeing  wool,  horse  hair,  leather  and  by  modern 
coiffeurs  for  coloring  hair  several  shades  of  yellow,  orange 
and  golden-brown. 

In  Egypt,  henna  is  grown  extensively  and  has  been  cul- 
tivated for  centuries.  It  is  also  grown  in  Abyssinia,  Soudan 
and  Somaliland. 

In  1914,  1,000,000  pounds  of  henna  were  exported  from 
Tripoli. 

Acacia  (A.  arabica),  or  babul  tree,  belongs  to  a  very 
large  family  of  trees  (Leguminosae),  450  species  of  which 
are  found  in  the  tropics  of  the  earth,  mostly  in  Australia  and 
Africa.  The  bark  of  this  tree  is  used  for  tannin  and  for  dye 
and  the  leaves  afford  a  yellow  dye.  This  dye  is  produced  in 
Senegal.  Black  dye  from  the  bark  is  used  to  make  a  kind  of 
ink  also,  and  the  natives  use  it  in  both  tanning  and  dyeing 
hides. 

Camwood  (Baphia  nitida)  produces  a  rich  red  dye,  used 
slightly  in  commerce,  but  more  particularly  by  the  negroes. 
Th*e  powder  is  sprinkled  over  their  bodies  or,  mixed  with  oil, 
is  smeared  on  them. 


204  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


When  camwood  is  scarce  henna  is  used  in  its  place  but 
is  not  nearly  so  favored  as  the  red  of  the  camwood.  This  tree 
is  indigenous  to  Nigeria,  Angola  and  West  Africa. 

An  inferior  dye  from  the  same  tree,  not  so  rich  a  red,  but 
much  used,  is  barwood.  The  red  of  this  dye  borders  on  orange. 
Another  dye,  ranging  from  pink  to  rose  color,  is  obtained  from 
rosewood. 

Tumeric  (Curcuma  longa),  a  plant  belonging  to  the  gin- 
ger family,  native  to  East  India,  but  introduced  into  several 
African  localities,  produces  a  yellow  dye. 

Safflower  (Carthamus  tinctorius)  is  a  thistle,  with  a  large 
orange-colored  flower,  native  to  India,  Persia  and  Egypt, 
where  it  has  been  cultivated  for  a  red  dye  obtained  from  its 
blossoms. 

Saffron  (Crocus  sativus),  a  crocus  having  purple  flowers, 
is  widely  cultivated  in  Mediterranean  countries.  The  stigma 
of  this  flower  yields  an  orange  color  which  is  chiefly  used  in 
confections  and  varnishes. 

Galls  are  excrescences  formed  on  several  trees  by  insects 
blonging  to  the  order  Hymenoptera,  and  allied  to  the  wasps. 
These  galls  are  found  abundantly  in  African  countries,  as 
Morocco  and  Algeria,  and  are  much  used  for  making  dyes 
and  ink- 

Argols,  or  lees,  which  are  deposited  as  a  crystalline  coat- 
ing in  casks  of  new  wine,  make  the  commercial  source  of  tar- 
taric  acid  and  tartrates,  which  are  used  as  mordants  in  dyes. 

In  1915,  Algeria  exported  tartar,  crude  and  wine  lees, 
5,218  tons,  valued  at  $945,507;  and  in  1916,  4,409  tons,  val- 
ued at  $1,018,654. 

Rocou  or  Arnotta  (Bixa  Orellana)  is  a  shrub  or  small 
tree,  native  of  tropical  America  and  extensively  cultivated 
there  as  well  as  in  tropical  African  countries,  for  the  red 
dye  produced  from  its  ^°<^ds.  Rocou  has  diminished  in  com- 
mercial importance  but  is  considerably  used  in  countries  where 
it  is  grown  and  extracted,  for  dyeing  silks,  feathers,  leather 
(russet)  bone  and  i^ory,  and  also  as  coloring  matter  for 
cheese  and  butter. 

Archil  or  orchil,  is  a  lustrous  violet  dye  obtained  from 
Roscella  tinctora,  R.  fuciformis,  and  Lecanora  tartarea.  Archil 
is  used  as  a  coloring  agent  in  pharmaceutical  preparations 
and  various  pigments.  These  dyes  are  obtained  particularly 
in  Angola,  Mozambique  and  Madagascar. 


RAW  PROPUCTS  OF  AFRICA  205 


Of  animal  dyes  two  are  of  especial  importance,  cochineal 
and  sepia. 

Cochineal  (Coccus  cacti)  is  a  tiny  insect  belonging  to  the 
plant  lice,  which  furnishes  a  widely-used  red  dye.  The  cochi- 
neal is  a  native  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  but  has  been 
introduced  into  the  East  Indies,  Algeria  and  the  Canary  Isl- 
ands. 

In  1913,  the  Canaries  exported  cochineal  to  the  value  of 
$75,124,  but  war  greatly  reduced  the  export. 

Sepia,  which  has  been  described  in  the  chapter  on  Fish, 
is  a  valuable  black  or  very  dark  brown  secretion  of  the  cuttle- 
fish. 

Coal  tar  has  thousands  of  compounds  to  its  credit,  the  col- 
ors alone  numbering  several  hundred.  These  dyes  are  known 
as  anilines,  anthracenes,  alizarines,  cosines,  and  produce  all 
colors  and  shades- 

White  lead  makes  the  best  white  paint  yet  produced. 
Lead  also  furnishes  an  orange  pigment  and  chrome  yellow. 

Zinc  produces  a  sulphate  which  is  an  important  pigment, 
although  it  has  less  value  than  that  of  lead. 

From  Copper  is  obtained  blue  vitriol. 

DRUGS 

Originally  drugs  meant  only  dry  herbs,  but  now  they  in- 
clude many  substances  of  the  vegetable,  animal  and  mineral 
kingdoms  used  in  medicine. 

Plants  afford  the  greatest  amount  of  medicines,  which 
come  from  the  roots,  sap,  bark,  twigs,  leaves,  fruit,  seeds  and 
blossoms. 

In  1915,  Algeria  exported  242  metric  tons  of  medical 
herbs,  flowers  and  leaves,  valued  at  $123,906;  in  1916,  391 
metric  tons,  valued  at  $210,000. 

Some  of  the  plants  from  which  drugs  are  obtained  in 
Africa  are  as  follows: 

The  madder  family,  which  furnishes  a  great  variety  of 
drugs,  comprises  about  350  genera  and  5,000  species.  Im- 
portant specimens  are  Mitchella  repens,  Gal  him,  Cephalan- 
thus,  Pseudocinchona  Africana,  indigenous  to  Africa,  used 
in  the  treatment  of  fever;  Krausia  coriacea,  a  poisonous 


206  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 

species,  but  used  medicinally  in  small  quantities.  Sarcocepha- 
lus  esculentus,  of  West  Africa,  is  used  as  a  refrigerant,  and 
as  a  tonic.  This  bark  is  chewed  by  the  natives. 

Nauclea  ineraiis,  is  used  in  the  Soudan  as  an  anti-emetic 
and  to  allay  rheumatism. 

Henbane  (Hyoscyamus  meticus)  grows  wild  in  Egypt  and 
the  Soudan,  and  eastwards  to  India.  In  1902  the  attention 
of  British  alkaloid  manufacturers  was  drawn  to  Egyptian  hen- 
bane for  its  excellent  quality. 

In  1915  dried  henbane  brought  in  London  markets  about 
$74  per  ton-  In  1916,  there  were  considerable  exports  from 
both  Egypt  and  Soudan,  high  in  quality,  and  that  of  Egypt 
pronounced  even  superior  to  Indian  henbane  which  has  long 
ranked  first. 

Aloe  (Aloe  barbadensis  and  A.  capensis)  is  a  liliaceous 
plant  resembling  the  century  plant,  from  which  a  much  used 
drug  is  obtained.  The  plant  yielding  Socotrine  aloes  is  nativ^ 
to  East  Africa,  and  this  is  the  chief  source  of  supply  of  the 
United  States.  That  yielding  Barbadoes  aloes  is  native  of 
Northwest  Africa.  Aloes  are  used  in  "bitters"  and  as  a  bowel 
medicine,  often  given  in  pill  form. 

In  14)16,  South  Africa  exported  986,939  pounds  aloes, 
valued  at  $45,283;  in  1917,  752,638  pounds,  valued  at  $33,- 
749. 

Cinchona  (Cinchona  succirubra)  produces  the  most  im- 
portant bark  used  medicinally.  The  cinchona  is  native  to  the 
Andes  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  but  eultivated  now  in  India,  Java, 
Japan,  Abyssinia,  German  East  Africa  and  the  West  Coast 
of  Africa.  This  bark  is  valued  for  three  alkaloids — quinine, 
quinidine  and  cinchonine — the  three  properties  considered 
most  effective  in  counteracting  malarial  affections  and  inter- 
mittent fevers. 

The  Cape  Verde  and  Canary  Islands  produce  quantities 
of  cinchona  bark,  and  sell  to  Equatorial  Africa,  where  white 
residents  take  from  one  to  10  grains  of  quinine  every  morn- 
ing. 

The  price  before  the  war  was  Id.  per  pound  in  Africa. 
It  is  now  2y%d.  per  pound,  and  8%d.  per  pound  in  London. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  207 


The  "hard  pear"  tree  (Strychnos  henningsii),  a  tree 
found  in  South  Africa,  furnishes  a  bark  which,  extracted 
with  alcohol,  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  an  "appetizer  bit- 
ter." The  natives  use  it  medicinally  and  in  veterinary  prac- 
tice. 

The  bark  of  "Knysna  boxwood"  (Gonioma  kamassi),  al- 
so of  South  Africa,  has  a  small  amount  of  alkaloid,  used  to  a 
small  extent  in  tonics. 

Rhizones  ( Kaempf eria  ethelae),  known  locally  in  South 
Africa  as  "sherimgulu,"  possesses  fragrant  tubers,  used  by 
natives  of  the  Rand  as  medicine. 

Datura  (D.  stramonium),  a  species  commonly  known  be- 
ing the  jimson  weed,  is  another  source  of  hyoscyaniine.  This 
is  successfully  produced  in  Egypt,  Soudan  and  South  Africa. 

The  jatropha  (Jatropha  curcas),  or  Indian  physic-nut,  is 
one  of  the  plants  which  the  Administration  attempted  to  de- 
velop in  the  colony  of  Senegal.  This  plant  and  its  products 
make  an  important  commercial  output  of  the  Cape  Verde 
islands. 

The  Calabar  bean  (Physostigma  renenosum),  a  native 
of  West  Africa,  produces  a  poisonous  bean  used  by  ophthal- 
mologists to  contract  the  eye  pupil. 

Nux  Vomica  (Strychnos  nux  vomica),  is  a  medicine  much 
used  and  recognized  in  all  pharmacopoeias.  It  is  obtained 
from  the  seeds  of  a  small,  straggly  tree  of  India,  Ceylon,  Co- 
chin China,  North  Africa  and  Australia. 

The  oils  of  several  plants  are  used  as  medicine,  notably 
that  of  the  castor  (Ricinus  communis).  The  castor  plant  is 
indigenous  to  or  naturalized  in  all  tropical  and  semi-tropical 
countries.  It  is  extensively  grown  in  many  African  countries 
for  the  oil  which  is  used  medicinally,  but  more  especially  for 
industrial  purposes,  and  especially  for  airplane  lubrication. 

Opium,  the  dried  juice  of  the  poppy  (Papaver  somnifer- 
um),  is  grown  in  Asia  Minor,  Turkey,  Egypt,  Persia  and  India. 

Laudanum  is  made  from  this  plant. 

Egypt  once  had  a  large  opium  trade  but  it  has  become 
greatly  lessened,  although  considerable  opium  is  still  pre- 
pared for  the  market. 

Cocaine  is  an  alkaloid  obtained  from  leaves  of  the  coca 
shrub  more  common  in  South  America  than  Africa,  and  is 


208  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


used  largely  as  an  anesthetic.  Taken  in  large  quantities  co- 
caine is  an  intoxicant  and  very  injurious  to  the  human  sys- 
tem. 

Several  animal  oils  are  used  as  medicines,  notably  that 
of  certain  fishes,  but  this  industry  is  negligible  in  Africa. 

From  African  minerals,  are  produced  salts  of  several 
kinds:  arsenic;  tincture  of  iron,  used  largely  in  tonics  with 
vegetable  bitters ;  mercury,  used  in  medicine  as  calomel ;  and 
various  preparations  made  from  coal-tar. 

SUGAR 

Sugar  is  chiefly  derived  from  two  sources,  the  sugar  cane 
(Saccharum  ofncinarum),  and  the  root  of  the  beet  (Beta  vul- 
garis).  The  sugar  cane  is  a  native  product  of  India,  but  by 
cultivation  has  spread  to  all  tropical  and  semi-tropical  re- 
gions of  the  earth.  Beet  sugar  was  not  produced  in  Africa 
(Algeria)  until  the  war. 

The  moisture  required  for  sugar-cane  growing  runs  from 
50  to  65  inches  annually  and -thus  limits  the  localities  in  Af- 
rica suitable  for  its  production. 

The  chief  centers  of  cane  sugar  industry  are  Natal,  Mo- 
zambique, Madagascar,  the  lower  Nile  valley,  the  Coast  of 
Nigeria,  French  Guinea,  the  Congo  and  Angola- 

Sugar  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  islands  off  Africa. 
The  French  introduced  it  into  Mauritius  and  Reunion  in  the 
18th  century,  and  it  is  now  one  of  the  chief  productions  of 
both  the  islands.  In  1913  Mauritius  produced  3,699,749  hun- 
dredweight of  sugar,  and  in  1915,  4,440,467  hundredweight, 
valued  at  $17,551,882.  In  1916  Mauritius  exported  sugar  to 
the  value  of  $22,500,000. 

In  Reunion  the  yield  of  sugar  is  64  per  cent,  of  the  cane. 

There  are  62,000  acres  of  sugar  in  Reunion. 

Madagascar  has  many  thousand  acres  in  sugar-cane. 

The  Egyptian  delta  is  a  great  sugar-cane  raising  country 
and  has  for  many  years  had  a  large  annual  output.  During 
the  years  1909-1913,  the  annual  average  export  of  sugar  was 
16,171,000  pounds.  In  1916,  Egypt  exported  63,533,000 
pounds  of  cane  sugar  valued  at  $3,000,000,  approximately, 
and  in  1917,  57,296,000  pounds,  valued  at  $4,462,024. 

Sugar  cane  is  found  extensively  in  the  moist  regions  of 
the  upper  Congo,  where  it  grows  wild  and  is  used  by  the  na- 
tives for  chewing  and  for  making  wine.  From  the  molasses 


RAW    PRODUCTS    c  F    A  r  r.  i  c1  A  209 


rum  is  produced.    But  although  easily  raised  here  sugar  doe 
not  seem  to  have  much  promise  of  future  development  in  the 
Congo.    In  the  first  half  of  the  year  1918,  Belgian  Congo  ex- 
ported 130  tons  of  sugar. 

Senegal,  in  1914,  exported  262,968  pounds  of  cane  sugar 
valued  at  $13,000-     Sugar,  introduced  into  this  country  from 
France,  is  so  commonly  grown  that  it  is  very  cheap  and  con- 
sumed in  large  quantities. 

Mozambique  has  a  sugar  factory  in  Duenu.  In  1915 
Mozambique  exporced  sugar  to  the  value  of  $614,754. 

Angola,  in  1914,  exported  4,554  tons  of  sugar,  valued  at 
$410,111,  and  in  1914,  2,960  tons,  valued  at  $213,913. 

The  confectionery  business  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa 
is  rapidly  increasing  and  extending  in  all  directions.  Fine 
chocolates  and  other  candies  are  now  made  and  boxed  at- 
tractively. 

In  1913,  the  Union  of  South  Africa  produced  1,730,000 
hundredweight  of  sugar;  in  1915,  2,000,000  hundredweight. 
In  1916,  the  Union  of  South  Africa  exported  3,550,673  pounds 
valued  at  $209,912,  and  8,597,165  pounds  sugar  products, 
valued  at  $140,817.  In  1917,  4,145,025  pounds  sugar,  valued 
at  $301,801;  and  433,193  pounds  sugar  products,  valued  at 
$13,743. 

The  output  of  sugar  for  1920  from  Union  of  South 
Africa  was  189,183  tons. 

Natal  has  by  far  the  greatest  sugar  output  in  the  Union 
of  South  Africa;  in  1918,  130,000  tons.  The  first  crop  of  sug- 
ar was  raised  in  Natal  in  1861.  The  yield  has  steadily  in- 
creased. 

Abyssinia  has  not  until  recent  years  cultivated  sugar- 
cane to  any  extent;  now  the  annual  output  of  sugar  is  in- 
creasing rapidly. 

The  world  production  of  sugar  in  1915  is  given  as  16,- 
806,000  long  tons,  which  is  divided  about  half  and  half  be- 
tween beet  and  cane  sugar.  Cuba  and  India  rank  first  as 
cane-sugar  producers;  Java  third;  Hawaiian  Islands  fourth 
Porto  Rico  fifth/ 

The  cane  is  generally  ripe  for  harvest  at  from  twelve 
to  sixteen  months'  growth.  It  is  cut  close  to  the  ground  jus* 
before  its  flowering  time,  being  then  heaviest  in  juice.  The 
stubble  develops  new  cane,  the  plants  thus  continuing  for  sev- 
eral years. 


210  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


The  tops  are  sliced  off  the  cane  immediately  after  cut- 
ting and  the  leaves  are  stripped  off,  only  the  denuded  stalks 
being  transported  to  the  mills.  An  average  analysis  of  high 
grade  stalks  in  this  condition  shows  about  72  per  cent,  water, 
18  per  cent,  sugar  and  10  per  cent,  woody  and  vegetable 
matter. 

Two  different  processes  are  in  use  for  extracting  cane 
juice — "milling"  and  ''diffusion".  By  the  "Milling  Process'5, 
the  stalks  are  unloaded  from  wagons  in  huge  bundles,  often 
weighing  five  tons  or  more,  into  a  "hopper",  or  onto  a  "car- 
rier" which  transports  them  to  a  "shredding"  machine  or  a 
"crusher".  They  go  next  to  the  roller  mills.  The  first  mill  ex- 
tracts probably  60  per  cent,  of  the  juice.  The  "bagasse",  as 
the  crushed  stalks  are  called,  is  then  sprayed  with  water  and 
put  through  a  second,  and  again,  a  third  mill,  after  which  the 
stalks  are  consumed  as  fuel  in  furnaces. 

For  the  diffusion  process,  the  cane-stalks  are  sliced  thin 
by  cutting  machines-  The  "chips"  or  pulp  go  to  a  series  of 
large  tanks  called  "diffusers"  or  "cells,"  where  steam  or  wat- 
er saturation  extracts  the  sucrose. 

The  juice  obtained  by  either  process  is  of  a  sweetish 
taste  and  the  appearance  of  sweet  cider.  It  is  pumped  into 
tanks  called  "defecators,"  to  remove  impurities.  It  then  com- 
monly undergoes  two  or  three  other  purifying  processes,  by 
evaporation,  or  through  filters,  before  it  is  ready  for  the  mul- 
tiple vacuum  boilers,  where  it  is  condensed  to  syrup. 

Next  comes  the  separation  of  whatever  proportion  of  un- 
crystallizable  syrup  is  mixed  with  the  crystals  now  generally 
accomplished  by  centrifugal  machines — a  wide-sided,  cylin- 
der-shaped basket  of  fine  mesh  is  revolved  at  high  speed  in- 
side an  iron  casing,  and  the  syrup  ejected  into  the  casing, 
whence  it  drains  into  a  receiver.  The  "cured"  sugar  left  is 
known  as  Centrifugal,  or  "Raw"  sugar,  or  locally  as  "Brown 
Sugar". 

BEANS 

All  pulses,  including  peas,  beans  and  lentils,  belong  to  the 
pea  family  (Leguminosae),  and  the  seeds  of  all  the  various 
species  form  very  important  articles  of  diet  the  world  over. 
Beans  form  the  most  important  commercial  pulse  product. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  211 


Leguminous  seeds  are  essentially  nitrogenous  and  con- 
tain more  proteins  than  other  vegetables,  the  proportion  in 
the  dried  seeds  ranging  from  about  20  to  28  per  cent.,  and 
carbohydrates  from  45  to  60  per  cent.  Amount  of  oil  is  low 
in  the  different  kinds. 

Beans  (Fabaceae)  are  the  seeds  of  certain  leguminous 
plants,  the  species  most  commonly  known  being  the  broad 
bean  (Vicia  faba),  including  lima,  kidney,  sieva,  string  beans. 

The  broad  or  horse  bean,  known  also  as  the  field  bean 
(Faba  vulgaris)  is  a  hardy  annual  belonging  to  the  shores  of 
the  Caspian  sea,  but  has  been  introduced  into  many  coun- 
tries south  of  that  region. 

The  soya  bean  (Glycine  hispida)  grows  on  a  dwarf  bush 
covered  with  fine  brownish  hairs.  This  bean  is  a  native  of 
China  and  Japan,  whence  it  was  introduced  into  India  and 
northern  Africa,  and  has  now  become  popular  all  over  the 
world.  It  constitutes  the  most  important  pulse  of  the  Far 
East,  where  little  meat  is  eaten.  These  beans  contain  more 
oil  than  other  beans.  The  cultivation  of  soya  beans  has  been 
encouraged  in  South  Africa  by  irrigation  schemes. 

The  haricot,  kidney  or  French  bean  (Phaseolus  vulgaris) 
is  probably  of  Asiatic  origin.  It  is  now  grown  in  all  temper- 
ate climates ;  many  varieties  have  been  produced,  all  of  which 
are  red  or  reddish  color.  This  bean  is  very  nutritious,  easily 
raised  and  is  becoming  one/  of  the  most  important  food  prod- 
ucts of  Africa,  particularly  in  Madagascar.  In  1913  imports 
of  haricot  beans  into  the  United  Kingdom  from  Madagascar 
were  71,820  hundredweight;  in  1916,  138,570  hundred- 
weight. 

The  carob  bean  (Ceratonio  siliqua)  or  "St.  John's 
Bread",  was  introduced  into  Africa  from  countries  across  the 
Mediterranean.  The  carob  is  a  tree  and  bears  long  pods, 
which  contain  a  very  nutritious  bean,  used  more  particularly 
for  horses  and  other  animals,  but  also  largely  as  a  human 
food.  This  bean  is  extensively  raised  in  Algeria  and  Mor- 
occo. 

The  world's  supply  of  beans  comes  chiefly  from 
Countries.     China,  India,  Turkey,  Russia  and  Egypt.    In  1915 
more  than  half  the  total  imports  of  Great  Britain 
were  from  British  India  and  Egypt. 


212  RAW   PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


Egypt  grows  many  varieties  and  was  the  chief  source 
of  extension  of  the  industry  throughout  Africa- 

In  1915,  Egypt  exported  to  England  377,660  hundred- 
weight of  beans,  valued  at  $1,583,597;  in  1916,  to  England 
333,460  hundredweight,  valued  at  $572,428  (a  war  emer- 
gency crop). 

Morocco  produces  great  quantities  of  beans,  largely  for 
local  use,  but  for  export  also.  In  1913,  Morocco  exported 
beans  to  the  value  of  $61,000;  in  1914,  900  hundredweight; 
in  1915,  53,640  hundredweight,  valued  at  $207,000. 

Morocco  exported,  1920,  beans  valued  at  31,140,  780 
francs. 

Tunis  has  many  acres  in  beans,  where  most  varieties  grow 
luxuriantly.  They  are  used  much  in  the  country  for  food, 
and  exports  sometimes  amount  to  sizable  quantities.  In  1915, 
Tunis  exported  10,192,393  pounds  of  beans,  valued  at  $232,- 
000. 

In  Congo,  beans  are  raised  everywhere  by  the  natives. 

In  Portuguese  Africa  the  bean  industry  goes  far  toward 
feeding  the  population  and  domestic  animals;  beans  and 
bean  products  are  among  the  exports. 

In  1913,  Angola  exported  551  tons  of  beans,  and  in  1914, 
833  tons. 

In  Mozambique  beans  grow  abundantly  and  thousands 
of  acres  are  under  cultivation.  In  1914,  Mozambique  export- 
ed Kaffir  beans  to  the  value  of  $100,000;  in  1916,  4,500,000 
pounds  of  Kaffir  beans. 

In  British  East  Africa  many  kinds  of  beans  are  grown. 

They  are  largely  cultivated  by  the  natives  but  receive  much 

attention  from  white  farmers  also,  both  for  local  food  and 

trade.  In  1917  there  were  105,612  acres  in  beans  in  Uganda- 

Besides  furnishing  human  food  in  enormous  quantities, 

Uses,     beans  are  used  in  feed  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and 

hogs,  while  the  leaves  and  stalks  are  used  as  fodder. 

Bean    stalks    make    an    excellent   fertilizer    and    are    often 

plowed  in  to  fertilize  the  ground  for  a  wheat  crop  to  follow 

their  harvesting.    The  stalks  are  also  used  for  making  paper. 

The  Lima  or  Duffin  bean  (Phaseolus  lunatus)  is  native  to 
South  America,  as  the  name  implies,  and  is  now  distributed 
throughout  warmer  portions  of  the  world.  Under  cultivation 
the  seed  has  become  much  larger  and  fuller  and  the  color 
has  been  changed  from  purplish  red  to  white. 


HAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  213 


Beans  have  flourished  in  Madagascar  almost  since  they 
were  introduced  in  1864.  The  lima  bean  was  the  first  bean 
introduced  and  became  so  abundant  and  such  a  good  article 
of  trade,  as  to  take  the  name  of  Madagascar. 

In  1912,  Madagascar  exported  6,073  metric  tons  of  lima 
beans,  valued  at  $561,200;  in  1913,  141  metric  tons,  valued  at 
$689,000;  in  1914,  8,561  metric  tons,  valued  at  $702,000;  in 
1916,  11,571  metric  tons,  valued  at  $1,228,377.  In  1917, 
15,000  tons  of  beans.  The  average  yield  of  beans  in  Mada- 
gascar in  1917  was  426  pounds  to  the  acre. 

Algeria,  in  1915,  had  136,000  acres  in  beans.  In  this 
country  the  locust  bean  makes  a  very  valuable  fodder,  for 
home  use  as  well  as  for  exporting.  In  the  year  1900,  140,- 
000  hundredweight  was  produced  and  the  government  is  try- 
ing td  promote  the  planting  of  these  trees  by  offering  prizes. 

Beans  are  grown  on  the  smaller  islands,  a  bean  especially 
favored  in  Mauritius  being  the  small  Indian  rice  bean,  which 
supplies  home  demands  and  leaves  a  good  many  tons  for  ex- 
port. 

The  African  Calabar  bean  is  described  under  the  chap- 
ter on  drugs. 

The  moth  green  gram  or  mung  (Phaseolus  mungo)  beans 
grow  wild  all  over  India,  their  native  home,  and  have  been 
cultivated  over  3,000  years.  These  beans  have  been  intro- 
duced into  all  African  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries. 

The  rice  bean  (Phaseolus  calcaratus)  is  another  small 
bean  found  wild  and  cultivated  in  India,  which  has  been  in- 
troduced into  Africa  and  adjacent  islands. 

The  vetch  (Vecia  sativa)  is  a  small  wild  species  of  bean 
which  is  used  principally  for  feed  for  horses  and  cattle,  but 
is  used  for  human  food  also.  It  is  grown  in  northern  African 
countries. 

PEAS 

Of  the  great  family  of  peas  two  varieties  are  most  im- 
portant. Piscum  sativum,  the  garden  or  common  pea  which 
grows  wild  in  India  and  the  Far  East,  is  called  the  parent 
of  all  garden  peas.  This  pea  has  been  cultivated  from  very 
remote  times  for  food,  both  green  and  dried.  The  other  chief 
species  is  Piscum  arvense,  the  gray  or  field  pea,  which  is  a 


2H  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


dwarf  plant  having  purple  or  pink  blossoms,  and  possessing 
leafy,  persistent  stipules.  They  grow  wild  in  Greece  and  the 
Levant.  These  peas  are  more  hardy  than  the  garden  species 
and  require  less  care. 

The  gram  or  chic  pea  (Cicer  arietinum)  is  an  annual 
herb,  cultivated  from  remote  times  in  warm  countries.  This 
pea  was  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Hebrews  and 
Greeks.  They  are  now  extensively  cultivated  in  many  Afri- 
can countries,  particularly  in  the  Mediterranean  littoral. 

The  pigeon  pea  (Cajanus  indicus)  is  a  sub-shrubby  plant, 
often  six  feet  in  height.  It  was  introduced  into  Africa  from 
India. 

These  peas  are  yellow  and  veined  purple.  England  im- 
ports great  quantities  from  her  colonies  for  cattle  food. 

Closely  allied  to  the  bean  is  the  cow  pea  (Vigna  catiaing) 
which  is  popular  in  tropical  countries,  furnishing  much  or  the 
food  in  those  regions.  The  pods  grow  from  one  to  two  feet 
in  length. 

In  all  of  the  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries 
Countries,     of  Africa  both  peas  and  beans  luxuriate.     Light 
humid  soils  suits  them  best. 

In  British  East  Africa  peas  are  widely  cultivated  and 
grow  in  abundance;  particularly  well  in  Uganda,  whence 
they  are  exported  largely  to  England. 

Other  East  and  West  African  countries  have  many  acres 
in  peas. 

The  Mediterranean  countries  all  raise  great  quantities 
of  peas. 

In  1913  Morocco  exported  chick  peas  to  the  value  of 
$151,000. 

In  Madagascar  peas  thrive  but  are  not  so  extensively 
raised  in  the  islands  as  their  cousins,  the  beans.  It  is  claimed 
that  peas  have  made  the  fortune  of  Southwest  Madagascar 
in  the  last  few  years.  In  1912  Madagascar  exported  peas  to 
the  value  of  $538,000. 

LENTILS 

The  other  important  member  of  the  pulse  family  is  the 
lentil  (Lens  esculenta).  These  seeds  are  also  called  vetches 
in  some  localities.  Lentils  have  whitish  or  pale  blue  flowers. 
The  pods  are  short  and  broad  containing  two  flattened  seeds. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  lentils,  French  and  Egyptian. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA  215 


Lentils  were  introduced  into  Egypt  from  Western  Asia 
at  a  very  early  period,  and  from  this  country  they  have  spread 
to  other  African  countries  and  beyond  to  the  islands.  Egyp- 
tian lentils  are  small  and  brown,  with  orange-colored  interiors. 
They  are  usually  sold  in  the  "split"  form. 

COFFEE 

The  coffee-bean  of  commerce  from  which  is  decocted  the 
popular  beverage,  is  the  product  of  Coffea  arabica,  a  rubiace- 
ous  plant  indigenous  to  Kaffa,  a  province  of  Abyssinia,  from 
which  the  name  is  derived.  In  the  eleventh  century  Arabs 
took  wild  seeds  which  at  Mocha  developed  a  finer  grade. 
Four  hundred  years  later  the  Arabs  returned  the  improved 
seed  to  Abyssinia,  which  now  produces  the  finest  (Harrari) 
coffee  in  the  world.  Wildberries,  "Abyssinian  coffee",  are 
exported,  but  the  cultivated  Harrari  or  "long-berry  Mocha" 
is  distinguished.  High  land  (6,000  feet)  produces  the  best 
coffee. 

The  world's  coffee  production  amounts  to  nearly  3,000,- 
000,000  pounds  per  annum.  Brazil  is  acredited  with  73  per 
cent,  of  the  whole  output;  other  countries  producing  from  3 
per  cent,  to  4  per  cent,  are  Dutch  East  Indies,  Guatamala,  Co- 
lombia, Venezuela,  Mexico,  Salvador,  Porto  Rico.  The  to- 
tal product  from  Africa,  including  wild  and  cultivated,  is  not 
more  than  2  per  cent.  The  countries  of  Africa  producing  this 
berry  in  the  order  of  importance  are  Abyssinia,  Angola,  Brit- 
ish East  Africa,  Liberia,  Somaliland,  Belgian  Congo,  Mozam- 
bique, Madagascar,  German  East  Africa  and  colonies  on  the 
West  Coast. 

Coffee  is  indigenous  to  Angola  and  has  long  been  an  arti- 
cle of  commerce  of  this  colony.  In  1890,  coffee  was  exported 
to  the  value  of  $760,000.  In  1913,  there  were  5,001  tons  ex- 
ported, valued  at.  $899,779,  while  in  1914,  the  output  had 
diminished  to  4,33$.. tons,  valued  at  $487,443. 

Senegal  grows  coffee,  but  this  country  pays  more  atten- 
tion to  a  coffee  substitute,  bentamare,  a  product  which  has 
long  been  known  in  the  commercial  world  as  a  coffee  sub- 
stitute. It  is  also  used  as  a  therapeutic  by  the  natives. 

Uganda  exported  coffee  in  the  year  1917  valued  at  $500,- 
000. 


216  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 

In  British  East  Africa,  the  price  of  virgin  soil  suitable  for 
coffee  plantations  is  now  $60  per  acre.  The  coffee  yield  when 
in  full  bearing  is  about  half  a  ton  per  acre,  and  it  is  worth 
about  $300  per  ton. 

In  1915,  Mombassa  exported  coffee  to  the  value  of  $341,- 
804. 

British  East  Africa  (Kenya)  exported,  1920,  coffee  to 
value  of  £574,884. 

Coffee  is  native  to  the  Congo  in  Ubangi,  the  forests  of 
Lusambo,  Lomami  and  certain  of  the  river  islands.  Many  va- 
rieties of  this  wild  coffee  have  been  observed  and  two  of  them 
have  an  aroma  and  taste  quite  remarkable. 

Coffee  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  farming  indus- 
tries with  the  greatest  future  in  the  Congo. 

In  1897,  coffee  cultivation  began  to  take  on  importance. 

A  million  and  a  half  plants  were  distributed  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  the  Equator  and  Bangala  and  at  Stanley  Falls. 

At  present  the  great  centers  of  coffee  culture  are  foun<? 
in  the  Mayumbe,  in  the  zone  of  Stanley  Falls  and  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  the  Equator  and  Aruwimi.  The  harvest  of  1903 
yielded  only  19  tons  on  account  of  the  drought.  The  Congo 
exported  160,000  pounds  in  1906. 

The  plantations  are  composed  almost  entirely  of  coffee 
trees  of  the  species  coffea  liberica. 

A  central  plant  established  at  Kinshasa  treats  the  cof- 
fee by  a  dry  process  and  prepares  it  for  sale ;  a  part  of  it  fs 
roasted  and  sold  in  the  Congo  itself,  the  rest  is  exported  to 
Europe. 

In  1902,  the  plant  furnished  a  total  of  149,670  kilos. 

A  substitute  for  coffee,  much  used  in  South  Africa,  either 
as  an  adulterant  or  as  mock  coffee,  Is  chicory. 
Coffee  Production  in  Pounds 
(From  Statistical  Abstract) 

1913  " 

Union  of  South  Africa 36,087 

Nyassaand  Protectorate  ...., 192,076 

Uganda  Protectorate 1,372,224 

E.  African  Protectorate 708,000 

Nigeria  9,828 

Sierra  Leone  ,  17.096       ? 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  217 

Islands  off  the  coast  of  Africa  have  for  many  years  raised 
their  own  coffee.  Madagascar,  in  1917,  exported  1,300,000 
pounds  of  coffee. 

The  Canary  Islands  raise  quite  a  supply  of  indigenous 
coffee,  and  one  of  the  chief  products  of  the  Cape  Verde  isl- 
ands is  coffee.  The  industry  in  these  islands  dates  back  to 
1790,  and  at  the  present  time  coffee  is  the  chief  resource  of 
ohe  people  in  Santo  Antao,  Fogo  and  San  Thiago. 

The  coffee  tree  in  Liberia,  finds  in  the  great  equa- 
Future  of  torial  forest  the  soil  arid  climate  which  suits 
Coffee.  it  the  best.  If  over-production  in  Brazil  does  not 

allow  at  present  the  sale  of  soffee  at  remunerative 
prices,  this  situation  will  soon  stabilize  itself. 

Robusta  coffee  is  native  to  Congo.  A  plantation  five 
miles  from  Stanleyville  in  the  Congo  is  trying  out  15  varie- 
ties of  coffee. 

In  1911,  German  East  Africa  exported  2,593,841  pounds 
coffee,  valued  at  $75,000;  in  1912,  3;473,188  pounds  coffee, 
valued  at  $90,000. 

In  1914,  French  Somali  exported  coffee  beans  to  the 
value  of  $1,600,000. 

In  the  year  1914,  Nyassaland  exported  192,074  pounds 
coffee;  in  1917,  131,390  pounds  of  coffee. 

In  the  colony  of  Ashanti  in  1916,  a  coffee-mill  was  set  up 
and  the  first  export  product  was  made  by  the  Swanzy  Com- 
pany in  competition  with  tinned  coffee,  which  is  a  consider- 
able import. 

Coffee  grows  well  in  many  parts  of  the  Union  of  South 
Africa,  but  most  of  the  output  is  used  for  home  consumption. 
A  good  deal  is  exported,  however,  although  other  kinds  are 
imported  into  the  colonies.  In  1916,  the  Union  of  South  Af 
rica  exported  1,074,580  pounds,  valued  at  $150,000;  and  in 
1917,  839,439  pounds,  valued  at  $136,034. 

TEA 

Tea  is  the  most  popular  beverage.  It  is  prepared  from 
the  leaves  of  the  order  Ternstromiaceae. 


218  RAW   PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


The  world  production  of  tea  cannot  be  accurately  esti- 
mated because  such  great  countries  as  China  and  India  con- 
sume immense  quantities  which  are  not  tabulated.  These  two 
countries  export  about  250,000,000  pounds  each  per  year, 
followed  by  Ceylon,  Japan,  Java,  Formosa  and  Malay  islands. 

The  tea-producing  countries  of  Africa  are  Natal,  Moz- 
ambique, Rhodesia,  Congo  and  Madagascar,  which  are  almost 
negligible  in  estimating  the  world's  total. 

One  advantage  of  African  tea  which  is  likely  to  grow  in 
popularity  as  people  grow  more  and  more  opposed  to  nar- 
cotics, is  its  freedom   from   tannin,   but  this  very   absence 
causes  habitual  tea  drinkers  to  pronounce  the  taste  of  Afri- 
can tea  peculiar.  Tea  planters  willing  to  persist  in  the  culture 
of  this  plant  may  yet  make  the  African  brands  popular. 
Union  of  Sowth  Africa  Produced  in  Pounds 
(Statistical  Abstract) 

1913  1915 

Natal  1,687,729  1,800,000 

Nyassaland  Protectorate..      215,040  288,341 

In  1916,  the  Union  of  South  Africa  produced  5,501,091 
pounds.  During  the  first  six  months  of  1918,  Belgian  Congo 
exported  10  tons  of  tea.  In  1914,  Nyassaland  exported  116,074 
pounds  tea;  in  1917,  420,685  pounds. 

From  3,740  acres  of  tea  Union  of  South  Africa  produced, 
1920,  5,168,419  Ibs.  (green  leaf). 

COCOA 

The  raw  cocoa  of  commerce  is  the  seed  of  trees  of  the 
genus  Theobroma.  All  are  natives  of  tropical  America.  The 
Theobroma  cacoa,  which  means  "Cocoa,  the  food  of  the  gods/* 
is  a  small  spreading  tree  which  is  usually  not  over  20  feet  in 
height  and  which  is  artificially  kept  lower  in  plantations. 

A  minimum  temperature  of  80  degrees,  and  plenty  of 
moisture,  both  of  soil  and  atmosphere,  are  required  to  bring 
out  their  full  bearing  possibilities.  The  trees  begin  to  bear  fruit 
at  three  or  four  years,  continuing  to  the  age  of  about  forty 
years.  Some  fruit  is  ripening  all  the  year  round,  but  two  main 
crops  are  gathered,  generally  in  June  and  December. 

The  cocoa  beans  or  seeds  are  found  in  pods  of  varying 
shapes  from  seven  to  twelve  inches  long.  The  ripe  pod  is 
dark  yellow  or  yellowish-brown  in  color  with  a  thick,  tough 


RAW   PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  219 


rind  enclosing  a  mass  of  cellular  tissue.     The  beans,  about 
the  size  of  almonds,  are  buried  in  the  tissue.    Each  pod  con 
tains  some  60  seeds.  When  fresh  they  are  bitter  in  taste,  and 
of  a  light  color,  turning  reddish-brown  or  reddish-gray  dur- 
ing the  processes  of  sweating  and  curing. 

The  ripened  pods  are  left  on  the  ground  for  twenty-four 
hours  to  dry.  The  next  operation  is  the  "sweating"  or  cur- 
ing. The  acid  juice  which  marks  the%beans  is  first  drained  off 
and  they  are  then  placed  in  a  sweating  box,  great  care  be- 
ing taken  to  keep  the  temperature  from  rising  too  high. 

The  final  plantation  process  is  the  drying  of  the  mass  in 
the  sun.  In  the  cocoa  and  chocolate  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments the  beans  are  cleaned,  sorted  and  roasted — the 
roasting  being  more  important,  for  upon  it  depends  to  a  great 
extent  the  flavor  of  the  finished  cocoa. 

Cocoa  contains  a  percentage  of  theobromine  which 
Chemical  corresponds  to  the  stimulating  properties  of  tea 
Analysis,  and  coffee,  but  itfs  high  merit  lies  principally  in  its 
very  large  proportion  of  nutritive  substances — 
roasted  cocoa  beans  contain  an  average  of  49  per  cent,  pure 
oil,  18  per  cent,  protein  matter,  10  per  cent,  starch,  and  7 
per  cent,  other  carbohydrates — contained  in  a  form  which  is 
very  palatable.  In  Europe  and  the  United  States,  chocolate 
is  a  part  of  the  army  ration  as  a  food  and  of  the  navy  ration 
as  a  beverage. 

The  United  States  is  today  the  largest  cocoa  consuming 
country  in  the  world.  During  1910,  more  than  115,000,000 
pounds  of  cocoa  beans  were  imported  into  the  United  States 
— nearly  one-third  of  the  entire  world  production.  The  source 
of  the  United  States  supply  has  been  chiefly  South  America, 
but  during  the  war  importations  came  from  West  Africa, 
which  now  supplies  one-third  of  the  world's  cocoa,  having 
surpassed  Ecuador. 

In  1909,  there  were  20,312  acres  planted  to  cocoa  in 
Fernando  Po,  and  the  production  for  1909  was  6,058,840 
pounds,  increasing  steadily  each  year  since  1905. 

The  island  of  St.  Thomas  produced,  1916,  629,450  bags 
of  cocao  weighing  135  lb«.  each. 

Experimental  cultivation  of  cocoa  has  been  in  progress 
in  the  Congo  since  1908.  Within  the  last  few  years  Mayumbe 
has  become  an  active  center  of  the  cocoa  industry.  The  pro- 


220  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


duce  appears  to  find  a  ready  market  in  Antwerp,  where  it 
fetches  from  $272  to  $370  a  ton.  With  the  northward  ad- 
vance of  the  Mayumbe  Railway,  fresh  fields  for  this  industry 
will  be  opened  up  in  the  Lower  Congo.  At  Mayumbe,  climate, 
soil,  labor  and  transportation  are  favorable.  Drought  is  the 
great  enemy  of  cocoa. 

The  rapid  progress  realized  in  cocoa  cultivation 
Future  of  in  the  last  ten  years  augurs  well  for  its  future. 
Cocoa.  Cocoa  is  at  present  the  only  economic  plant  large- 
ly cultivated  susceptible  of  furnishing  certain  re- 
sults under  normal  conditions  for  production;  it  may  be  con- 
sidered a  basic  element  of  Congolese  agriculture. 

The  cocoa  plantations  existing  now  in  Mayumbe  cover 
only  a  part  of  the  available  soil  of  that  region.  Exploitation 
will  be  easy,  certain  and  remunerative.  From  1896  to  1906, 
cocoa  exports  increased  from  92  kilos  to  402,429  kilos. 

While  in  1906,  the  average  price  was  1  fr.  80  per 
Prices,     kilogram,  it  rose  to  2  fr.  84  in  1907;  on  December  5, 

of  the  same  year  it  was  2  fr.  05. 

In  1915,  Belgian  Congo  exported  1,363,601  pounds  co- 
coa; 1916,  1,694,000;  1918,  1,505,280  pounds. 

The  quantity  of  cocoa  exported  from  the  Gold  Coast 
during  1910  is  estimated  at  50,692,949  pounds,  valued  at  $4,- 
217,389,  as  against  42,277,606  pounds,  valued  at  $3,675,896, 
in  1909. 

The  cocoa  returns  for  Ashanti  for  1910  show  1,914  tons, 
as  against  1,790  tons  in  the  preceding  year. 

The  spread  of  cocoa  disease,  which  unfortunately  is  pre- 
valent in  the  Central  Province,  does  not  seem  to  have  damp- 
ened the  ardor  of  cocoa  growers  so  far. 

In  1915,  Gold  Coast  exported  cocoa  to  the  value  of  $17,- 
767,425;  in  1916  72,161  tons,  valued  at  approximately  $19,- 
000,000;  in  1917,  22,373  tons,  valued  at  $300,000. 

Gold  Coast  exported,  1920,  cocoa  to  the  value  of  £10,- 
056,298  (124,773  tons). 

Cocoa  constituted  62  per  cent,  of  the  exports  of  Gold 
Coast  in  1915.  Lack  of  transportation  during  the  war  cur- 
tailed the  output  immensely. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  221 

The  price  of  cocoa  has  steadily  fallen,  one  important 
producer  stating:  "The  average  price  for  the  last  10  years 
has  been  $13.60  per  100  pounds;  and  for  the  last  five  yearis 
$11.80  per  100  pounds." 

Cocoa  lands  are  sold  by  area,  the  price  varying  accord- 
ing to  their  estimated  fertility.  The  very  best  plantations  are 
valued  at  $485  an  acre.  Each  250  acres,  well  planted,  has 
about  53,000  trees  and  should  produce  about  88,000  pounds 
of  cocoa. 

In  1915,  Nigeria  exported  182,095  hundredweight  cocoa, 
valued  at  $1,527,663;  in  1916,  179,121  hundredweight,  val- 
ued at  $1,912,800. 

Experiments  in  Nigeria  resulted  in  an  average  of  5.92 
pounds  per  tree  per  annum  and  an  annual  profit  of  $20  per 
acre. 

Nigeria  exported  1920,  cocoa  to  the  value  of  £1,237,538. 

In  Kamarun  the  production  of  the  cocoa  palm  and  kola 
are  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  colored  population. 

Seventy-seven  thousand  eight  hundred  sixty-seven  kilos 
of  cocoa  beans  from  Madagascar  were  exported  in  1917. 

The  Cape  Verde  Islands  contain  much  wild  cocoa  and 
considerable  is  cultivated,  but  the  output  could  be  much 
larger. 

Liberia  cultivates  considerable  cocoa,  most  of  which 
comes  to  the  United  States. 

The  ground  cocoa  bean,  from  which  part  of 
Use  of  Cocoa,     the  oil  or  fat  has  been  extracted,  is  sold  in 
powdered  form.  Because  of  the  smaller  quan- 
tity of  oil,  cocoa  is  more  acceptable  to  many  digestions  than 
the  richer  chocolate. 

Chocolate:  The  ground  cocoa  bean,  generally  in  cake 
form,  sweetened  and  unsweetened,  flavored  and  unflavored, 
for  cooking  and  eating. 

Powdered  Chocolate:  Sweetened  chocolate  of  varying 
styles  and  compositions,  sold  in  a  pulverized  condition. 

Milk  Chocolate:  A  compound  of  milk  powder  and  the 
ground  cocoa  bean,  sweetened  and  flavored. 

Cocoa  Nibs:  The  cracked  cocoa  bean,  cleared  of  chaff, 
shells. 


222  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


Cocoa  Butter:  The  fat  or  oil  extracted  from  the  cocoa 
bean.  It  has  high  commercial  value,  and  is  employed  in  con- 
fectionery, especially  in  covered  candies,  such  as  chocolate 
creams,  but  a  considerable  quantity  is  used  in  the  druggist's 
trade — in  the  manufacture  of  toilet  preparations  and  cos- 
metics. 

Chocolate  for  a  long  time  has  been  recognized  as  pos- 
sessing high  nutritive  qualities  in  concentrated  form,  and  it 
is  a  staple  part  of  the  contents  of  the  pack  of  mountain  climb- 
ers and  polar  explorers.  The  importance  of  chocolate  and  co- 
coa for  army  and  navy  purposes  was  recognized  by  the  War 
Trade  Board  in  laying  out  its  policy  with  respect  to  the  re- 
striction of  imports* 

There  is  a  project  for  a  valorization  committee  to  estab 
lish  a  minimum  price  for  cocoa  and  to  stabilize  the  trade,  sim- 
ilar to  the  plan  adopted  for  the  valorization  of  coS'ee  in  Bra- 
zil. Portugal,  Ecuador  and  Brazil  are  the  chief  parties  to  the 
agreement  and  will  control  over  one-half  of  the  world's  output. 
Cocoa  producers  are  realizing  a  profit  of  75  to  100  per  cent, 
net. 

Cocoa  has  long  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  fore- 
Markets,     most    staples    of    international    commerce.     The 
United  States  is  buying  twice  as  much  as  before 
the  war.     In  Europe,  the  principal  markets  are  Hamburg, 
Havre  and  London. 

When  shipping  facilities  are  restored  New  York  is  like- 
ly to  be  an  important  cocoa  distributing  center. 
World's  Production  of  Cocoa 

1915 
Countries  Metric  Tons 

Gold  Coast,  Accra  76,022 

Brazil  46,260 

Ecuador 32,834 

San  Thome      29,598 

Santo  Domingo,  Samana 23,389 

Trinidad  21,808 

Venezuela  12,250 

Grenada       7,363 

Jamaica ! 3,405 

Haiti  2,028 

All  other  Countries 28,343 


Total  283,300 


RAW  PRODUCTS  o*  AFRICA  223 


The  most  remarkable  shift  in  the  cocoa  trade  during  the 
war,  is  the  increase  in  direct  importations  from  British  West 
Africa  from  7,895  pounds  in  1914  to  40,424,917  pounds  in 
1917.  These  importations,  no  doubt,  included  large  quanti- 
ties from  Portuguese  West  Africa  shipped  via  the  British  pos- 
sessions. 

KOLA 

The  kola  (Cola  acuminata)  is  a  large,  wide-spreading 
tree  resembling  the  chestnut,  indigenous  to  several  parts  of 
Africa.  The  fruit  or  seeds  of  this  tree,  known  as  kola  nuts, 
have  only  within  recent  years  become  important  in  world 
commerce,  but  they  have  long  been  used  by  native  African 
tribes,  who  chew  them  for  their  stimulating  effect,  and  de- 
clare that  they  allay  both  thirst  and  hunger. 

"To  the  African",  says  Monteuil,  "the  kola  nut  is  as 
Uses,     indispensable  as  betel  to  the  Hindoo,  as  opium  to  the 
Chinaman,  as  cigarettes  to  the  Spaniard,  or  as  the  dog 
to  the  blind  man." 

Kola  is  commonly  used  as  a  masticatory  to  relieve  the 
fatigue  of  long  journeys.  A  particular  advantage  in  carry- 
ing it  is  that  it  can  be  transported  in  very  small  compass. 

The  most  important  substitute  is  "false",  "male", 
Substitutes,     or  "bitter"  kola  (Garcinia  kola),  also  of  Afri- 
can origin.     This  product  is  from  the  fruit  of 
the  plant  instead  of  from  the  seed. 

The  kola  tree  reaches  its  full  growth  about  the  tenth 
year,  when  it  yields  from  90  to  100  pounds  of  nuts,  and  a  tree 
of  good  size  and  bearing  is  estimated  to  yield  about  $10  or  $12 
a  year.  The  dark  green  pods,  which  grow  in  clusters,  con- 
tain from  five  to  six  to  a  dozen  seeds  or  nuts.  These  nuts  are 
heavy,  hard  and  tough,  the  surface  light  brown  and  minutely 
granular;  they  have  no  odor  but  are  bitter  and  have  a  slightly 
astringent  taste. 

Fresh  kernels  are  preserved  entire.  Dried 
Preparations,  kernels  are  separated  in  halves  or  quarters, 
which  are  dried  and  put  up  for  use.  The  most 
popular  form  of  commerce  is  the  ground  powder,  which  is 
freely  soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and  acetone,  sparingly  soluble 
in  ether,  but  insoluble  in  chloroform  and  benzin.  Protocate- 
chuic  acid  is  made  from  the  powder  by  boiling  it  with  dilute 
acids. 


224  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


Kola  trees  exist  wild  or  cultivated  through- 
Production  by  out  tropical  Africa,  but  most  of  the  supply  is 
Countries.  obtained  from  the  Congo,  Guinea,  Nigeria, 

Liberia,  Dahomey.  It  grows  in  greatest  per- 
fection in  the  hinterland  of  Gold  Coast  and  is  an  article  of 
great  commercial  importance  throughout  the  Soudan. 

In  the  Congo  it  is  cultivated  chiefly  by  the  natives  of  the 
lower  river,  but  the  tree  is  abundant  through  the  whole  cen- 
tral region. 

In  all  the  colonies  of  French  West  Africa  the  kola  tree 
is  indigenous,  and  in  all  the  colonies  the  negroes  consume 
great  quantities  of  kola  nuts. 

The  production  in  Guinea  is  insufficient  for  local  use,  but 
the  Beyla  district  contains  45,000  kola  trees,  while  Rio  Pongo 
has  90,000  trees. 

In  Senegal  the  negroes  are  very  fond  of  this  nut  and  con- 
sume great  quantities.  It  was  once  used  in  this  colony  in  the 
manufacture  of  tonics,  but  this  industry  has  dwindled.  The 
exportation  from  Senegal,  though  not  large,  has  steadily  in- 
creased for  75  years. 

In  1897  Dakar  exported  2,052  pounds. 

In  Nigeria,  the  kola  nut  has  recently  grown  in  importance 
as  an  export.  In  this  country  kola  takes  the  place  of  tea  in  all 
social  affairs.  In  Southern  Nigeria,  the  trees  are  cultivated  in 
plantations  by  the  Yorubas,  Ibos  and  Binis,  but  they  are  sel- 
dom seen  in  Northern  Nigeria. 

In  Sierra  Leone,  the  kola  nut  comes  second  in  importance 
of  products,  the  oil-palm  having  first  place. 

Enormous  quantities  of  these  nuts  are  exported  yearly 
to  Gambia  and  Senegal  ports,  but  they  are  not  largely  ex- 
ported across  seas,  as  natives  all  along  the  coast  buy  most  of 
the  supply  that  comes  from  Sierra  Leone. 

In  1912,  Sierra  Leone  exported  kola  nuts  to  the  value  of 
$1,345,595;  in  1913,  to  the  value  of  $1,596,063;  in  1914,  to 
the  value  of  $1,358,582;  in  1915,  to  the  amount  of  2,484  tons, 
valued  at  $1,500,000. 

Sierra  Leone  exported,  1920,  kola  nuts  valued  at  £626,- 
815  (2,657  tons). 


RAW    PRODUCTS   OP    AFRICA  225 


The  Gold  Coast,  while  not  producing  such  quantities  of 
kola  nuts  as  Sierra  Leone,  yet  has  a  large  area  in  cultivation 
of  the  trees,  besides  thousands  of  wild  native  trees  which  are 
visited  regularly  by  the  natives  for  their  valued  production. 
There  are  good  prospects  of  this  country  being  one  of  the 
foremost  of  kola  nut  producers. 

The  Gold  Coast  exported:  In  1915,  kola  nuts  to  the  value 
of  $677,167;  in  1916,  to  the  value  of  $652,000;  in  1917,  to 
the  value  of  $98,200. 

Gold  Coast  exported,  1920,  kola  nuts  valued  at  £452,245. 
The  increasing  use  of  Coca-Kola  as  a  refreshing 
Outlook,  beverage  throughout  the  civilized  world  bids  fair 
to  make  this  a  profitable  industry  in  Africa  particu- 
larly on  account  of  general  discontinuance  of  alcoholic  drinks. 
Big  orchards  would  yield  a  good  revenue  in  all  the  colonies 
of  West  Africa. 

PEANUTS,  ARACHIDES,  GROUNDNUTS 

The  origin  of  the  peanut  (Arachis  hypogoea)  is  attrib- 
uted bo'th  to  South  America  and  Africa.  Peanuts  have  thrived 
many  years  in  Africa  and  have  become  a  favorite  with  the  na- 
tives, who  eat  them  in  great  quantities.  Of  the  world's  an- 
nual harvest  of  a  million  tons,  Africa  produces  one-eighth. 
Export  is  mostly  from  the  French  West  Coast  colonies.  Pea- 
nut oil  and  butter,  in  addition  to  food  uses,  are  substitutes 
for  olive  oil,  and  are  used  in  manufacture  of  soap  and  per- 
fumes. The  residue  of  plants  and  shells  make  fertilizers  and 
cattle  food. 

By  cold  expression,  as  high  as  50  per  cent,  of  oil  is  ob- 
tained; by  heat  a  larger,  but  inferior  product. 

French  colonies  usually  export  in  shells.  Marseilles  lists 
10  varieties  of  peanuts  from  as  many  countries;  exported 
mainly  after  shelling, 

French  Wc*t  Africa's  peanut  trade  amounts  to  12  to  15 
million  dollars  annually. 

Senegal  is  chief  producer.  Of  the  French  export  of  533,- 
698,023  pounds  ($11,559,067)  in  1915,  Senegal  received  $10,- 
865,700. 


226  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 

Senegal  uses  primitive  methods,  scratching  the  land  with 
an  old  sword,  "hilaire",  and  getting  two  tons  to  a  hectare.  A 
plow  would  triple  the  yield.  Better  railroad  facilities  are 
needed  everywhere. 

Senegal  exported,  1920,  peanuts  to  the  value  of  236,719,- 
955  francs. 

Soudan  and  Cosigo  export  arachides.  The  crop  in  Upper 
Congo  runs  from  26  to  53  hundred  quarts  to  the  acre,  worth  in 
Europe,  $60  per  ton.  Belgium  in  1907  imported  1,110,934 
pounds  ($80,800). 

Rhodesia  furnishes  peanuts  for  the  Salisbury  soap  manu- 
factories. 

Some  1500  acres  are  in  peanuts,  but  the  industry  is  in  the 
experimental  stage. 

Nigeria's  export  in  1913  was  valued  at  $849,993;  in 
1916,  $2,304,795. 

Nyassaland,  like  all  East  Africa,  employs  the  natives' 
crude  methods,  with  good  results.  Export  in  1916  had  a  value 
of  $8,000. 

German  East  Africa  in  1911  exported  5,523,659  pounds 
of  peanuts  ($116,558)  ;  in  1912,  13,400,254  pounds  ($302,- 
990). 

Mozambique  in  1912  exported  a  value  of  $458,423;  in 
1914,  $253,666. 

Madagascar  cultivates  in  interior  towns,  some  18,000 
acres. 

Gambia's  peanut  crop  is  chief  source  of  prosperity.  Ex- 
port in  1915  was  $1,948,517;  in  1916,  $2,530,000. 

The  British  on  both  coasts  have  promise  of  larger  ex- 
portation. 

GROUND-NUTS 

Peanuts  are  often  erroneously  called  ground-nuts,  be- 
cause the  matured  nuts  or  seeds  are  obtained  from  the  ground. 
There  is  a  real  ground-nut,  or  earth  nut  (Bunium  esculen- 
tuni),  belonging  to  a  genus  of  tuberous  plants  with  edible? 
roots  (Panax  trifolium),  and  native  of  Africa.  The  tubers  of 
this  plant  resemble  miniature  potatoes  and,  being  edible,  the 
ground-nut  has  been  extensively  Cultivated  in  tropical  Af- 
rica, where  it  constitutes  a  large  item  of  the  native  diet. 


RAW    PRODUCTS    OF   AFRICA  227 


Specimens  of  these  plants  have  been  examined  by  the  Im- 
perial Institute,  and  pronounced  worthy  of  more  commercial 
notice. 

In  Nigeria  and  Zanzibar  ground-nuts  are  grown  in  abund- 
ance, and  make  excellent  food  for  humans  and  domestic  ani- 
mals, but  they  have  never  become  important  commercially 
nor  been  exported  to  a  great  extent. 

Gambia  exported,  1920,  ground  nuts  to  the  value  of  £2,- 
398,444. 

NUTS 

Nuts  are  hard-shelled  dry  fruit  or  seeds,  having  separable 
shells,  which  inclose  an  interior  kernel  or  "meat",  of  ^excellent 
food  value.  Nuts  are  of  an  infinite  variety,  growing  mostly  in 
tropical  and  semi-tropical  countries.  Africa  has  an  abundance 
of  nut-bearing  plants.  Among  these  are  : 

The  almond  tree  (Prunus  amygdalus),  a  native  of  Syria, 
Persia  and  Algeria,  is  largely  cultivated  in  all  Mediterranean 
countries,  notably  Spain,  Italy,  Morocco,  for  the  kernels  of  its 
seeds,  which  are  the  popular  almonds  of  commerce.  The  al- 
mond tree  grows  to  a  height  of  about  20  feet;  has  leaves  sim- 
ilar to  the  peach  but  its  blossoms  are  much  larger  than  peach 
blossoms.  The  fruit  is  valuable  only  for  its  seeds,  which  may 
be  classed  as  the  most  popular  of  all  small  nuts,  in  Africa. 

Morocco's  export  before  the  war  of  $1,523,000  fell  to 
$842,359  in  1915;  $337,500  in  1916.  The  Canaries  increased 
from  $21,000  in  1915,  to  $29,000  in  1916. 

Morocco  exported,  1920,  almonds  to  the  value  of  14,946,- 
442  francs. 

Hazel  nuts  (Corylus  avellana)  grow  well  in  all  temperate 
countries  of  Africa. 

Brazil  nuts  (  Bertholletia  excelsa)  have  been  introduced 
into  Africa  where  they  have  become  a  favorite  of  the  natives 
and  are  raised  for  trade  also. 

Walnuts  ( Juglans  regia)  are  native  of  Persia  and  China, 
whence  they  spread  to  temperate  Europe,  where  they  have 
been  raised  since  antiquity,  and  were  later  introduced  into 
northern  African  countries.  While  not  so  flourishing  as  some 
of  the  other  north  African  nuts,  they  have  a  better  place 
in  the  southern  colonies,  where  they  are  grown  for  nuts  and 
timber.  The  butter  nut  of  North  America  (JugUn*  cinera) 
has  been  introduced  into  South  Africa. 


228  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


Other  North  American  nuts  introduced  into  Africa  are 
the  hickory  nut  (Carya  alba  and  C.  nigra)  closely  allied  to  the 
walnut;  the  peanut  (Carya  glabra)  ;  and  pecan  (Carya  olivae- 
formis). 

The  pistachio  (Pistacia  vera)  is  a  small  spreading  tree 
20  to  35  feet.  When  grown  from  the  seed  the  tree  does  not 
bear  fruit  for  six  or  eight  years,  but  budded  or  grafted  be- 
gins to  bear  in  two  or  three  years.  It  is  a  native  to  Syria  and 
Persia,  where  it  is  cultivated,  as  in  all  Mediterranean  coun- 
tries of  Europe  and  Africa.  It  succeeds  best  in  Tunis  and  Sic- 
ily, which  are  frost-free,  with  sandy  soil.  The  fruit  of  this  tree 
is  a  drupe,  valued  chiefly  for  the  kernel  of  its  seed,  which  has  a 
delicate  flavor.  The  fruit  is  picked  at  maturity  and  spread  in 
the  shade  to  dry,  after  which  the  kernels  are  removed  for  ex- 
port. The  annual  yield  per  tree  is  as  high  as  60  pounds. 

Two  other  nuts  said  to  have  promising  value  in  African 
tropical  countries,  perhaps  chiefly  for  their  oil,  are  N'gore 
nuts  (Ongokea  Gore),  and  N'kamka  nuts  (Heisteria). 

Numerous  nuts  not  yet  made  commodities  of  trade,  are 
to  be  found  in  tropical  Africa. 

Strephonema  kernels  are  found  in  the  Belgian  Congo, 
and  contain  enough  fat  to  make  them  of  considerable  value, 
if  they  are  raised  extensively. 

The  cashew  nut  (Anacardium  occidentale)  is  growing  in 
popularity.  This  nut  is  native  to  Latin  America,  but  is  now 
found  in  all  tropical  countries.  It  grows  plentifully  and  prof- 
itably in  West  and  East  Africa,  Madagascar  and  other  islands. 

The  wild  tree  has  irregular  and  spreading  branches,  but 
when  cultivated  its  growth  is  more  upright.  It  attains  16  to  30 
or  40  feet;  grows  best  in  sandy  soil  and  withstands  drought, 
but  in  dry  countries  its  productions  are  increased  by  irriga- 
tion. It  bears  when  three  or  four  years  old  but  not  abundant- 
ly until  eight  or  10  years  old.  It  has  small  rose-colored  aro- 
matic blossoms.  The  kernel  which  constitutes  about  30  per 
cent  of  the  nut,  is  covered  with  a  thin  yellowish  or  greenish 
grey  skin ;  the  flesh  is  a  clear  white.  The  kernels  have  a  bland 
taste;  they  are  eaten  in  the  countries  where  the  tree  grows 
and  esteemed  as  a  dessert  in  Europe.  They  are  used  after 
roasting,  as  a  constituent  of  nut  chocolate,  and  have  other  ap- 
plications, similar  to  those  of  the  almond,  in  confectionery. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  229 


The  cashew  "apple"  is  succulent,  and  is  eaten  as  a  fruit, 
either  raw  or  cooked,  in  the  countries  where  it  occurs;  it  can 
also  be  made  into  a  preserve.  In  Brazil,  Portuguese  East 
Africa  and  some  other  countries,  a  wine  is  prepared  from  the 
juice  by  fermentation,  and  a  spirit  is  obtained  from  the  wine 
by  distillation.  Both  the  wine  and  the  "apple"  itself  are  con- 
sidered to  have  antiscorbutic  properties.  The  juice  of  the 
rind  is  serviceable  in  keeping  away  ants  and  destructive  in- 
sects. 

Cashew  nuts  are  shipped  in  considerable  quantities  from 
Portuguese  East  Africa  to  Europe.  Only  the  kernels  are  ship- 
ped as  the  oily  properties  of  the  shells  make  them  objection- 
able. In  years  that  almonds  are  scarce  the  cashew  nuts  are 
in  greatest  demand  and  bring  the  largest  prices.  They  are 
usually  shipped  in  cases  containing  two  hundredweight.  In 
1916  the  prices  of  kernels  were  quoted  at  55s.  to  65s.  per 
hundredweight. 

In  1914,  Mozambique  exported  cashew  nuts  to  the  value 
of  $9,285;  in  1916  1,148,626  pounds  to  the  value  of  $6,000. 

FRUITS 

Africa  is  pre-eminently  the  land  of  fruits.  Probably  every 
known  variety  can  be  found  within  its  limits.  Many  fruits 
are  indigenous.  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  brought  several 
varieties  from  South  America  to  the  West  Coast.  Chinese  and 
Hindus  have  introduced  fruits  native  to  Asia  on  the  East 
Coast.  Turks  and  Arabs  have  brought  fruits  from  the  Cau- 
casus regions  into  northern  Africa.  English,  French  and  Ger- 
mans have  introduced  favorite  fruits  into  their  African  col- 
onies. 

The  Dominions  Royal  Commission,  Third  Interim  Report, 
London,  1914,  says: 

"Many  parts  of  the  provinces  within  the  Union  of  both 
Africas  afford  admirable  opportunities  for  the  establishment 
of  fruit  farming  on  a  considerable  scale.  Soil  and  climate  alike 
are  suitable,  while  growers  have  a  great  advantage  in  that 
their  first  .shipments  of  fruit  can  reach  the  London  market  two 
or  three  weeks  before  those  of  growers  in  other  parts  of  the 
southern  hemisphere.  The  industry  has  already  assumed 
large  proportions  and  is  giving  good  returns.  It  is  being: 


230  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


tered  by  the  clauses  in  the  mail  contract,  which  provide  for  a 
special  rate  of  freight  and  facilities  for  cold  storage,  with  ad- 
ditional concessions  if  soft  fruit  and  citrus  fruit  are  passed 
by  the  Government  inspector  before  shipment. 

South  Africa  exports  many  peaches  and  other  orchard 
and  stone  fruits.  One  of  the  most  thriving  fruits  is  the  plum. 
Oranges,  tamarinds  and  other  citrus  fruits  are  extensively 
raised  and  have  become  a  considerable  article  of  export." 

"Three  hundred  tons  of  South  African  fruit  were  landed 
in  Covent  Gardens  in  April,  1919,  as  an  experiment,"  ac- 
cording to  the  South  African  of  April  19,  1919,  and  this  pa- 
per adds:  "The  fruit  consisted  of  pears,  apples  and  melons. 
The  pears  were  in  an  unsatisfactory  condition,  having  been 
carried  on  deck,  but  the  apples  and  melons  were  in  better 
condition,  being  hardier  fruit." 

In  1916,  South  Africa  exported  1,406,958  pounds  dried 
and  preserved  fruit,  valued  at  $133,547,  and  fresh  fruit,  val- 
ued at  $325,262. 

In  1917,  South  Africa  exported  2,631,517  pounds  dried 
and  preserved  fruit,  valued  at  $239,728,  and  fresh  fruit,  val- 
ued at  $120,903. 

Madagascar  is  rich  in  fruit,  both  native  and  adopted.  In 
the  southern  part  fruits  of  the  temperate  zone  thrive,  and  on 
to  its  northernmost  shores  range  fruits  suited  to  warm  lati- 
tudes. Pineapples  have  increased  in  importance  as  an  export, 
and  bananas  also  do  well.  Citrus  fruits  grow  in  a  wild  state. 
Oranges  and  mandarins  are  grown  in  small  quantities  from 
planted  trees.  Semi-tropical  fruits,  such  as  mangoes,  figs, 
in  small  quantities,  papayas,  pomegranates,  also  grow  in  Mad- 
agascar, but  not  in  a  cultivated  state,  except  at  the  experiment 
stations. 

Missionaries  report  that  the  African  natives  interpret  the 
Scriptural  injunction  for  man  to  eat  bread  by  the  sweat  of  his 
brow,  to  mean  that  man  should  eat  until  he  sweats. 

The  Canary  Islands  supply  a  large  portion  of  the  Euro- 
pean markets  with  bananas,  2,500,000  bunches  being  the  av- 
erage annual  export,  which  go  to  many  markets  of  the  world. 
Guavas,  custard  apples,  and  prickly  pears  are  also  grown  in 
great  quantities,  and  pineapples  thrive;  but  in  these  islands, 
where  drought  is  so  common  and  agricultural  products  of  all 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  231 


kinds  are  chiefly  raised  by  irrigation,  the  banana  is  the  crop 
most  to  be  depended  upon.  This  industry  will  probably  soon 
gain  its  former  remunerative  pre-war  basis. 

In  1913,  the  Canary  Islands  exported  bananas  to  the 
value  of  $6,628,057;  in  1916,  to  the  value  of  $2,765,000. 

The  Cape  Verde  Islands  also  raise  great  quantities  of  ba- 
nanas, as  well  as  other  fruits. 

In  the  islands  of  Reunion  and  Mauritius,  a  delicious  man- 
darin orange  grows  to  perfection. 

Of- orchard  fruits  the  apple  (Pyrus  malus) 
Fruits  That  is  native  to  most  of  the   cooler  countries 

Grow  in  Africa,     in  the  northern  hemisphere.  Most  African 
countries  are  too  warm  for  apples  to  flour- 
ish, but  in  the  southern  part  of  the  continent  there  are  very 
promising  orchards. 

The  pear  (Pyrus  communis)  is  grown  successfully  in 
northern  Africa  and  in  Cape  Colony,  where  it  is  a  favorite  for 
canning. 

The  quince  (Pyrus  cydonia)  is  a  native  of  Southern  Eu- 
rope and  Algeria. 

Of  stone  fruits,  the  plum  (Prumis  domestica)  is  a  native 
of  Caucasus  and  Asia  Minor.  Dried  plums  produce  prunes, 
which  support  a  considerable  industry  in  the  uplands  of  South 
Africa. 

The  apricot  (Prumis  armeniaca)  is  supposed  to  be  na- 
tive of  Armenia,  but  was  naturalized  in  Egypt  in  very  early 
times.  It  has  spread  to  many  other  African  countries,  and 
has  become  a  favorite  in  Southern  Africa. 

The  peach  (Prumis  persica)  is  believed  to  be  native  of 
China,  where  it  was  cultivated  from  remote  time.  Peach 
stones  were  carried  by  the  old  trade  route  to  Persia  about 
300  B.  C.,  and  thence  to  Asia  Minor,  Europe^  and  Africa.  All 
varieties  are  grown  on  the  Mediterranean  littoral  and  in  the 
Union  of  South  Africa. 

The  cherry  (Prunjis  $vinra  and  Primus  cerasus),  native 
to  Europe  and  parts  of  Asia,  is  sparse  in  Africa. 

The  red  (Ribes  rubrum)  an4  black  current  (Ribes  nig- 
rura)  are  not  yet  important  fruits  pf  Africa,  £ut  grow  well  in 
the  southern  extremity. 

The  gooseberry  (Ribes  grossularia)  is  grown  in  small 
quantities  by  Englishmen  in  South  Africa. 


232  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


The  raspberry  (Rubus  idaeus)  and  the  blackberry  (Ru- 
bus  fruticosus)  have  been  introduced  from  Europe  in  north- 
ern and  southern  extremities  of  Africa. 

The  strawberry  (Fragaria  virginiana)  gives  promise  in 
African  countries. 

The  mulberry  (Moms  Nigra)  is  of  very  ancient  origin 
and  was  formerly  more  popular  than  now  though  it  is  still 
used  for  food  in  many  countries,  and  has  been  propagated  in 
Tunis,  Tripoli  and  South  Africa  for  silk  worms. 

The  great  family  of  citrous  fruits  thrive  in  Africa.  The 
most  common  of  these,  the  orange  (Citrus  aurantium),  is 
thought  to  be  native  of  China.  There  are  many  varieties,  as 
the  blood  orange,  St.  Michael's  orange,  sweet-skinned  orange, 
called  Pomme  d'Adam  in  France;  Seville  or  bitter  orange 
(Citrus  aurantium  var.  Bigaradia),  introduced  into  Asia  by 
Arabs  from  India  in  the  9th  century,  and  from  Arabia  to  Eng- 
land and  Northern  Africa;  bergamot  orange  (Citrus  aurant- 
ium var.  Bergamia),  of  which  the  rind  is  sweet  and  used  for 
essence  and  sweetmeats;  mandarin,  or  Maltese  orange  (C. 
nobilis),  native  of  China,  from  which  country  it  has  spread  to 
the  Azores  and  Africa. 

The  lemon  (Citrus  medica  var.  limonum)  is  native  of  In- 
dia or  China,  and  has  been  cultivated  from  remote  time  in 
both  countries,  whence  it  has  spread  to  Europe,  Africa  and 
other  countries. 

Citron  (Citrus  medica  var.  Aurantiacese)  is  supposed  to 
have  originated  in  Assyria  and  Media.  It  was  early  intro- 
duced into  Greece  and  other  southern  parts  of  Europe,  and 
northern  Africa. 

The  lime  (Citrus  medica  var.  acida)  is  native  of  the 
warm  valleys  of  the  Himalaya  mountains,  and  its  cultivation 
is  a  great  industry  in  many  hot  countries,  notably  the  West 
Indies  and  African  islands. 

There  is  an  edible  sweet  lime  (C.  medica  var.  limetta), 
which  is  a  native  of  Southern  India  and  grows  well  in  warm 
African  countries. 

The  shaddock  (Citrus  decumana),  indigenous  to  the  Ma- 
lay Archipelago,  is  the  largest  species  of  the  citrus  fruits, 
sometimes  weighing  from  10  to  20  pounds.  Grape-fruit  has 
become  almost  as  popular  as  the  orange  and  is  found  in  va- 
rious parts  of  Africa. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  233 

The  banana  (Musa  cavesidishi ) ,  originally  discovered  in 
China,  is  a  main  staple  among  African  natives  of  the  tropic 
belt  where  nature  supplies  food  in  abundance. 

In  the  Congo,  bananas  are  raised  with  great  rapidity  and 
safety;  from  6,000  to  8,000  bunches  weighing  from  60  to  80 
tons,  may  be  produced  per  acre.  The  principal  fruits  of  the 
Congo  are  the  banana,  pawpaw,  mango,  orange,  lemon,  sour- 
sop,  avocado  pear,  tamarind,  pomegranate,  guava,  pine-apple, 
bread  fruit,  and  others. 

The  Belgian  Congo  exports  great  quantities  of  fresh, 
canned  and  preserved  fruit.  In  the  first  half  of  1918  this  coun- 
vry  exported  45  tons  of  preserved  fruits. 

The  Cameroons  can  produce  bananas  abundantly  and 
have  sent  large  exports  of  both  fresh  and  dried  bananas. 

The  fig  (Ficus  farica)  is  a  deciduous  tree  said  to  be  na- 
tive to  Asia  Minor.  The  tree  grows  luxuriantly  in  northern 
African  countries. 

The  pineapple  (Ananas  sativus)  is  native  to  Brazil.  The 
principal  pineapple  producing  regions  of  Africa  are  the 
Canary  Islands,  Sierra  Leone,  Natal  and  Mozambique. 

Among  other  fruits  of  Africa  may  be  mentioned  the  man- 
go (Mangifera  indica)  said  to  have  originated  in  India  but 
long  cultivated  throughout  the  tropical  and  semi-tropical 
world;  the  avocada  pear  (Persea  gratissima),  a  native  of 
South  America;  the  guava  (Psidium  guajava),  a  seedy  tropi- 
cal fruit  of  peculiar  flavor,  but  much  esteemed  for  excellent 
jelly,  preserves  and  a  dark  rich  "paste"  much  in  favor  where 
the  fruit  is  known. 

Besides  so  many  temperate  zone  fruits  Algeria  is  success- 
ful in  production  of  citrus  fruits  also,  though  exports  in  this 
line  have  not  become  so  important  as  orchard,  stone  and  small 
fruits.  In  1913  there  was  a  harvest  of  250,000  quintals  of 
oranges,  and  both  lemons  and  limes  are  grown. 

In  1913,  Algeria  exported  to  France  385,613  quintals  of 
table  fruits  to  the  value  of  $3,052,000 ;  in  1915,  36,109  metric 
tons  of  fresh  fruit,  valued  at  $1,830,000  and  11,099  metric 
tons  of  dried  fruit,  valued  at  $986,600 ;  in  1916,  33,712  met- 
ric tons  of  fresh  fruit,  valued  at  $1,826,938  and  12,712  metric 
tons  of  dried  fruit,  valued  at  $1,119,000. 


234  RA\V  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 

Tunis  produces  many  fruits  which  bulk  large  in  her  ex- 
ports, both  temperate  and  semi-tropical  fruits  being  success- 
fully raised. 

Morocco  exports  many  grapes  and  other  fruits. 

Egypt  produces  fruits  in  all  her  fertile  lands  of  the  Nile, 
and  in  the  oases  of  upper  Egypt  there  is  a  distinctive  variety  of 
plum,  the  musch,  with  sweet  kernels.  Both  the  dried  fruit  and 
the  kernels  form  important  articles  of  export. 

German  East  Africa  has  nearly  all  the  tropical  fruits 
that  grow,  and  many  of  them  have  been  cultivated  to  a  con- 
siderable degree.  Promise  of  this  industry  is  very  great.  Ger- 
many has  experimented  much  with  tropical  fruits,  and  ha"l 
perfected  a  process  of  drying  banana  pulp  that  was  palatable 
and  keepable. 

In  British  West  Africa  the  lime  tree  is  to  be  found  in 
nearly  every  part,  and  in  some  places  has  become  naturalized. 
At  present  they  are  raised  chiefly  for  the  juice  used  locally, 
but  both  fruit  and  juice  are  exported  to  the  United  Kingdom 
in  limited  quantity.  In  1913,  200  gallons  of  lime  juice  were 
shipped  from  Sierra  Leone.  British  West  Africa  also  produces 
many  other  tropical  fruits.  The  pineapple  export  from  Bath- 
urst  has  grown  to  large  proportions. 

In  Nigeria  limes  do  so  well  that  there  is  great  promise  of 
an  extensive  trade  in  distilled  oil  of  lime  and  citrate  of  lime, 
and  of  the  juice  and  fruit  itself. 

Many  parts  of  Rhodesia  are  admirably  suited  for  the 
production  of  oranges.  The  orange  is  the  fruit  which  is  likely 
to  be  most  profitable,  as  it  is  eminently  suitable  for  export  in 
quantity  and  ripens  at  a  season  just  in  time  to  get  to  the  Lon- 
don market  when  there  is  a  large  demand  for  it.  Consider- 
able success  is  likely  to  be  achieved  with  the  early  apricots, 
peaches  and  plums.  In  1915,  the  Cape  produced  over  500 
tons  of  dried  apricots,  which  were  quite  as  good  as  any  pro- 
duced in  California ;  the  demand  is  still  greater  than  the  sup- 
ply. 

In  Southern  Rhodesia,  at  the  close  of  the  year  1917  there 
were  149,429  citrus  trees  in  orchards  of  all  varieties,  of  which 
about  54,083  were  bearing. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA  235 


Mozambique  has  become  a  great  fruit  market.  Oranges 
are  shipped  to  Europe,  but  only  in  small  quantities  as  yet.  But 
many  kinds  of  fruits  go  through  the  Mozambique  ports  and 
tlie  quantity  increases  yearly. 

In  1916,  Mozambique  exported  138,788  pounds  of  fruit 
through  Lourenco  Marques,  valued  at  about  $9,000. 

In  the  Union  of  South  Africa,  a  great  part  of  the  exports 
go  to  England,  but  there  are  shipments  to  other  countries  as 
well.  Fruit  shipments  increased  from  less  than  25,000  boxes 
in  1905  to  more  than  200,000  boxes  in  1910,  and  introduction 
of  modern  methods  has  made  growth  even  more  noticeable 
since  1910. 

South  Africa  can  grow  as  fine  apricots,  peaches  and 
plums  as  any  country  in  the  world.  Three  thousand  hundred- 
weight of  oranges  are  shipped  to  England  annually  from 
South  Africa. 

Few  products  give  more  promise  in  African  coun- 
Outlook.     tries  than  fruit.    Many  fruits  are  indigenous  to  the 
different  regions,  and  many  others  that  have  been 
introduced  thrive  as  if  in  their  native  soil. 

As  fruit  is  one  of  the  most  widely  and  abundantly  con- 
sumed of  all  food  products,  it  is  possible  for  Africa  to  be  one 
of  the  greatest,  if  not  the  greatest  fruit  continent  on  earth ; 
and  modern  cold-storage  facilities  of  railroads  and  steamers 
make  it  possible  for  all  kinds  of  fruit  to  be  shipped  great 
distances  with  more  surety  of  deliverance  than  ever  before. 

DATES 

Dates  are  from  the  palm  (Phoenix  dactylifera),  which  is 
indigenous  to  the  dry  hot  regions  of  Northern  Africa,  where 
it  is  also  abundantly  cultivated,  and  constitutes  the  chief 
food  of  a  large  proportion  of  native  inhabitants  as  well  as  of 
their  domestic  animals. 

The  best  dates  come  from  Algeria  and  Tunis,  but  many 
other  African  countries  produce  this  fruit  in  abundance. 

The  principal  cultivation  of  dates,  olives  and  figs  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  natives;  in  Tuat-Oasen  alone  there  are  about 
eight  million  date  palms,  which  yield  each  year  about  three 
million  hundredweight.  The  date  palm  in  its  eighth  year 
gives  half  a  crop,  from  15  to  20  years  a  whole  crop. 


236  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 

In  1913,  Algeria  exported  dates  to  the  value  of  $920,- 
417;  in  1914,  to  the  value  of  $388,316. 

In  1916,  Tunis  exported  7,533,066  pounds  of  dates,  val- 
ued at  $287,000;  in  1917,  4,273,811  pounds  of  dates,  valued 
at  $162,000. 

In  1916,  2,138,598  date  palms  were  counted  in  Tunis. 

Tunis  produced,  1920,  dates  to  the  amount  of  87,520,- 
000  .Ibs. 

In  the  Soudan  the  local  demand  for  the  fruit  is  very 
large,  but  there  is  still  enough  for  exports,  which  go  chiefly  to 
Egypt.  The  total  annual  exports  amount  to  about  3,000  tons, 
valued  at  $174,000.  Soft  dates  brought  from  Algeria  have 
improved  the  dry  date,  making  it  softer  and  of  better  flavor. 
Dates  are  subject  to  great  fluctuations  in  price. 

WINES  AND  LIQUORS 

Growing  grapes  for  wine  is  an  industry  that  requires  large 
capital  and  a  considerable  period  of  time  without  profit  or 
dividend,  and  consequently  has  not  established  itself  exten- 
sively in  Africa.  From  a  commercial  point  of  view,  the  in- 
dustry is  important  in  several  African  countries,  but  Algeria 
is  the  special  wine-producing  country  of  this  continent  and 
ranks  fourth  in  world  production. 

In  1914  France  produced  1,331,000,000  gallons;  Italy, 
840,000,000  gallons;  Spain,  418,000,000  gallons;  Algeria, 
267,000,000  gallons;  Tunis  (1916)  9,914,000  gallons. 

Phylloxera  and  other  plant  diseases  do  considerable 
damage  to  the  vines,  and  the  late  siroccos  often  reduce  the 
output.  Lack  of  labor  and  shortage  of  barrels  and  bottles 
seriously  affected  the  output  during  the  war. 

The  year  1914  may  be  taken  as  a  banner  year,  with  the 
following  total  output  of  267,485,500  gallons,  divided  as  fol- 
lows : 

Algeria  172,587,141  gallons 

Oran  67,454,265       " 

Constantine  27,423,195       " 

South  Territories  .  20,949       " 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  237 


The  vine-growing  in  Algeria  and  Tunis  is  confined  to  the 
strip  of  land  known  as  the  Tell  bordering  the  Mediterranean. 
About  80,000  quintals  of  grapes  are  exported  from  Algeria 
each  year,  and  some  raisins,  though  Morocco  is  a  more  prom- 
ising field  for  the  latter,  having  a  better  supply  of  water. 

Tunis,  1920,  produced  10,952,276  gallons  of  wine. 

In  1901,  150,000  hectares  were  under  cultivation  by  Eu- 
ropeans in  Algeria.  In  the  year  1898,  16,800  Europeans  and 
11,700  natives  were  engaged  in  this  cultivation. 

Since  the  Koran  forbids  the  use  of  wine,  only  the  grapes 
have  been  eaten  by  the  Moors. 

Algerian  wine  is  generally  heavy,  has  10  to  14  per  cent, 
alcohol,  but  little  bouquet,  since  the  grapes  ripen  and  ferment 
too  quickly.  It  is  exported  principally  to  Bordeaux  where 
it  is  prized  as  table  wine.  These  vines  grow  best  about  500 
meters  above  sea  level,  and  in  good  localities  in  fruitful  years 
80  to  100  hi.  per  hectare  are  produced.  The  white  wine  is 
generally  better  than  the  red. 

During  the  war  one-third  of  the  wine-crop  of  Algeria 
was  requisitioned  for  military  purposes. 

Mistelles  is  a  product  peculiar  to  Algeria.  It  is  a  mixture 
of  must  and  alcohol.  The  average  export  is  15,750,000  quarts. 

Chasselas  de  Fontainebleau  is  a  particularly  favorite 
wine  of  the  Algerian  coast. 

The  exportation  of  table  grapes  from  Algeria  is  about 
4,400,000  pounds. 

In  1913,  of  Algeria's  production  of  wine  142,905,210  gal- 
lons went  to  France  (including  mistelles),  to  the  value  of  $29,- 
481,908,  and  588,472  gallons  of  brandy  and  spirits  to  the  val- 
ue of  $487,200. 

In  Algeria  the  yield  of  wine,  1920,  was  157,136,452  gal- 
lons. 

Wine  was  introduced  in  South  Africa  by  the  Dutch  Col- 
onists as  early  as  1653,  and  was  patronized  by  the  govern- 
ment. The  Hermitage,  a  claret  type,  and  Drakenstein,  a  hock 
type,  are  two  popular  wines  for  export.  A  good  deal  of 
brandy  is  distilled.  The  wine  industry  is  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  the  Cape  Province,  where  there  are  upwards  of 
4,000  wine  farmers.  The  annual  value  of  the  output  is  esti- 
mated at  £250,000  and  the  value  of  the  wine  converted  into 
brandy  and  spirits  at  £208,000.  The  export  of  Cape  wines 


238  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


amounts  to  little  more  than  £13,000  per  annum.  The  census 
figures  of  1904  showed  a  total  production  of  over  5,000,000 
gallons.  In  1911,  the  amount  had  increased  to  7,500,000  gal- 
lons, practically  the  whole  of  which,  in  the  form  of  either 
wine  or  spirits,  finds  a  ready  sale  in  the  country. 

Vineyards  were  started  by  expatriated  French  Hugue- 
nots on  the  tablelands  of  South  Africa,  where  claret,  sau- 
terne,  sherry  and  burgundy  are  produced.  These  vineyards 
have  undergone  many  vicissitudes  through  insect  pests  and 
the  fluctuations  of  the  European  markets  for  wine,  but  at  pres- 
ent are  gradually  expanding. 

In  1911,  the  total  grape  crop  of  the  Union  of  South  Af- 
rica was  5,754,000  bushel  baskets.  From  this  was  made  621,- 
500  gallons  of  brandy  and  5,468  gallons  of  wine. 

In  1916,  Union  of  South  Africa  exported  765,805  gallons 
potable  spirits,  valued  at  $892,740,  and  186,242  gallons  of 
wine,  valued  at  $209,693. 

In  1917,  Union  of  South  Africa  exported  147,305  gallons 
of  potable  spirits,  valued  at  $334,722,  and  346,676  gallons  of 
wine,  valued  at  $252,664. 

The  value  of  the  wine  output,  1920,  from  Union  of  South 
Africa  was  £204,649. 

In  1914,  Senegal  exported  154,516  liters  of  wine,  valued 
at  $18,500. 

Mozambique  exported  in  1915,  wine  to  the  value  of  $711,- 
981. 

Reunion  produces  1,100,000  gallons  of  rum  annually. 

In  1915,  Mauritius  exported  rum  to  the  value  of  $31,331. 

Canary  wine,  for  more  than  a  hundred  years  a  staple  for 
high  livers,  is  rapidly  dwindling.  Its  first  set  back  occurred  in 
1853,  when  disease  attacked  the  grapes.  Now,  however,  un- 
der the  steady  advance  of  prohibition,  the  Canaries  have  re- 
placed wine,  first  by  cochineal,  but  of  late  years  more  espec- 
ially by  sugar-cane. 

Other  fermented  and  alcoholic  liquors  have  a  place  in 
African  commerce  also,  but  in  this  continent  as  well  as  others, 
the  detriment  to  human  beings  brought  about  by  intoxicating 
liquors  is  receiving  attention.  Liquors  are  on  the  downward 
trend  in  Africa. 

Scarcity  of  animal  energy  and  the  risk  of  gasoline  have 
promoted  the  use  of  industrial  alcohol  as  a  source  of  power 
in  many  regions. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  239 


A  new  fluid,  originating  in  Natal,  and  known  as  Natalite, 
is  being  introduced  as  a  substitute  for  gasoline  in  operating 
motor  cars. 

GARDEN  VEGETABLES 

Human  beings  can  easily  subsist  without  meat;  they  can 
not  subsist  without  vegetables,  and  even  the  lowest  savages 
are  found  to  cultivate  a  few  plants  for  food. 

Prominent  among  vegetables  stands  the  white 
Genera  and  or  Irish  potato  (Solaiauni  tuberosum).  This 
Specimens,  tuberous  plant  is  native  to  the  American  con- 
tinents. Potatoes  were  originally  sub-tropical 
and  will  not  stand  much  frost.  From  the  Mediterranean  to 
the  Cape  the  potato  has  becme  a  popular  and  thriving  vege- 
table of  Africa.  The  Shire  plateau  of  East  Africa,  Rhodesia 
and  Cape  Colony  produce  many  potatoes. 

In  British  East  Africa  Irish  potato  growing  was  started 
a  few  years  ago  and  proved  so  successful  that  the  supply  soon 
exceeded  the  demand,  because  the  demand  was  practically 
limited  to  the  white  people. 

The  increasing  potato  crop  of  Morocco  has  reduced  the 
acreage  of  the  Canary  Islands. 

Potatoes  are  successfully  grown  in  the  northern  part  of 
German  West  Africa. 

In  The  Union  of  South  Africa  potatoes  and  all  other  vege- 
tables halve  become  important  in  industry.  In  1916,  South 
Africa  shipped  vegetables  to  the  value  of  $195,804,  and  in 
1917,  to  the  value  of  $298,040.  During  1917,  2,000  tons  of 
potatoes  alone  went  to  England. 

Common  vegetables  of  Europe  which  are  cultivated  in 
limited  quantities  in  Africa  include,  the  carrot  (daucus  car- 
ota);  the  parsnip  (pastinaca  sativa) ;  the  beet  (beta  vulgar- 
is);  parsley  (petroselinum).  Parsley  is  a  native  of  Sardinia. 
The  artichoke  (helianthus  tuberosus),  a  tuber  of  a  sunflower, 
is  quite  popular  in  several  African  countries  for  food. 

The  cabbage  family  (brassica  oleracea) ;  cauliflower 
(brassica  oleracea  botrytis  cauliflora),  and  the  turnip  (bras- 
sica rapa  depressa). 

The  onion  (A Ilium  cepa)  is  cultivated  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  Africa,  wherever  it  will  grow. 


240  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


Asparagus  (Asparagus  officinalis)  is  cultivated  in  Afri- 
can Mediterranean  countries,  from  which  it  has  found  its  way 
to  the  southern  countries  and  islands. 

Chillies  (Capsicum  frutescens),  or  small  peppers,  are 
widely  cultivated  in  the  warm  countries  of  Africa,  particular- 
ly at  Zanzibar  and  Guinea. 

The  cucumber  (Cucumis  sativus)  is  a  native  of  Egypt, 
where  it  has  been  cultivated  for  over  3,000  years.  It  has  been 
introduced  into  other  countries  all  over  the  world,  growing 
best  in  sub-tropical  climates.  Vegetable  marrow  (Cucorbita 
ovifera)  is  closely  allied  to  the  cucumber.  Other  popular 
esculents  belonging  to  the  cucumber  family  as  well,  are  wat- 
ermelon (Citrullus);  pumpkin  (Cucurbita  pepo) ;  squash 
(Cucurbita  maxima);  bottle-gourd  (Cucurbita  legenaria),  all 
found  in  Africa. 

The  tomato  ( Lycopersicum  esculentum  is  native  to  Am- 
erica. 

The  sweet  potato  (Ipomoea  batatus)  and  yam  (Bios- 
corea)  largely  take  the  place  of  white  potatoes  in  various 
countries.  Sweet  potatoes  are  thickened  roots  of  the  vine, 
Ipomoea  batatus,  improved  by  cultivation.  The  sweet  potato 
is  popular  in  African  countries,  where  it  has  been  used  by  the 
natives  so  long  that  they  claim  it  was  the  first  food  of  man. 
Sixty  thousand  hectares  of  sweet  potatoes  are  planted  in 
Madagascar  with  an  average  production  of  240,000  tons  per 
year. 

Sweet  potatoes,  yam  and  manioc  are  the  most  exten- 
sively cultivated  plants  in  the  Congo. 

Algeria,  that  formerly  devoted  large  acreage  to  cotton, 
has  of  recent  years  taken  to  early  garden  vegetables,  so  that 
the  country  has  become  the  veritable  kitchen  garden  of  the 
mother  country.  Certain  vegetables  which  are  highly  es- 
teemed in  France,  as  artichokes,  tomatoes,  potatoes,  green 
peas  and  beans,  form  a  large  item  of  the  exports. 

In  1907,  Algeria  exported  garden  vegetables  to  the  value 
of  $1,850,000.  The  product  and  varying  export  through  the 
years  culminated  in  1917  with  27,000  acres  in  potatoes  (2,- 
756,000  bushels). 

In  the  first  half  of  1918,  Belgian  Congo  exported  75  tons 
of  preserved  vegetables  and  20  tons  of  potatoes  and  onions. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  2-11 


The  indigenous  yam  is  cultivated  in  Dahomey  and  th^ 
!vory  Coast  especially.  The  Baoules  of  Ivory  Coast  feed  them- 
selves exclusively  on  igname,  bananas,  a  little  rice,  manioc 
and  corn. 

The  natives  in  Southwest  Africa  cultivate  Irish  potatoes, 
tomatoes,  sorrel,  onions,  garlic,  pepper. 

In  Egypt  and  other  North  African  countries,  garden  veg- 
etables form  a  very  important  item  in  the  yearly  yield.  Ir 
1915,  Egypt  exported  onions  to  the  value  of  $1,740,433,  and 
in  1916,  to  the  value  of  $1,551,206. 

In  Senegal,  the  native  is  the  only  farmer,  and  his  methods 
are  very  crude;  he  does  not  plow  the  land,  on  account  of 
superstition.  As  it  takes  white  settlers  a  long  while  to  per- 
suade the  blacks  to  overcome  superstitions,  agriculture  in  Sen- 
egal is  growing  slowly. 

Mozambique,  besides  furnishing  her  own  population  with 
potatoes,  has  been  able  to  export  small  quantities.  In  1916, 
this  country  exported  through  Lourenco  Marques,  90,343  Ibs. 
of  potatoes,  valued  at  about  $600. 

Vegetables  grow  well  in  all  of  the  African  islands,  the 
Canaries  especially  giving  attention  to  this  form  of  agricul- 
ture. Tomatoes  do  exceptionally  well  in  these  islands,  an  acre 
yielding  about  20,000  pounds  of  fruit. 

Bananas,  tomatoes  and  potatoes  are  grown  under  irri- 
gation and  the  yield  varies  little  from  year  to  year. 

Onion  seed  is  the  Canarian  product  most  interesting  to 
the  United  States,  as  almost  its  whole  supply  is  raised  in  the 
two  islands  of  Teneriffe  and  Gomera.  There  are  only  six 
firms  engaged  in  the  business.  They  engage  small  farmers  to 
grow  seed  from  selected  onions.  In  1914,  the  Canaries  export- 
ed onions  to  the  value  of  $123,644,  and  onion  seeds  to  the  val- 
ue of  $43,000.  In  1916,  the  Canaries'  onion  crop  amounted  to 
to  $164,000;  tomato  crop,  $415,000;  potato  crop,  $421,000. 

The  tomato  crop  of  the  Canaries  in  1913  amounted  to  $2,- 
477,654,  and  the  potato  crop  to  $276,578;  and  in  1914,  the 
tomato  crop  amounted  to  $2,315,306,  while  the  potato  crop 
amounted  to  $528,777. 


242  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


WOODS  OF  AFRICA 

The  area  of  forests  in  Africa  is  comparatively  small. 
Jungles  of  giant  grasses  cover  vast  stretches  of  this  continent. 
In  the  north  is  the  great  Desert  of  Sahara,  where  sand  has 
accumulated  for  ages  and  is  still  continuing  to  encroach  upon 
the  forests  to  the  southward.  How  to  stop  the  desert's  spread  is 
a  challence  to  man's  scientific  mastery  of  nature. 

Woods  are  soft  or  hard,  those  of  quick  growth 
Uses  and  usually  constituting  the  soft  woods,  and  those 

By-Products.  of  long,  slow  growth  the  hard  woods.  After 

the  trees  become  lumber  the  wood  is  classified 
according  to  color,  hardness,  weight,  strength,  elasticity, 
grain  and  durability. 

The  important  commercial  woods  of  Africa  are:  Ma- 
hogany, cork,  okume,  ebony,  rosewood  and  brier. 

From  various  waste  woods  are  obtained  acetic  acid, 
which  is  largely  used  in  producing  crepes,  rubber,  creosote, 
potash,  tar,  acetate  of  lime,  methyl  alcohol  and  charcoal. 

In  Egypt,  utilization  of  the  woody  cotton-stalks  is  being 
experimented  with. 

Liverpool,  London  and  Glasgow  were  markets  for  Af- 
rican mahogany  before  the  war.  Hamburg  was  the  great  mar- 
ket for  heavy  mahoganies.  From  Hamburg  the  markets  of 
Scandinavia,  Russia  and  Austria  were  supplied.  Shipments 
were  made  to  the  United  States  from  Liverpool,  mostly  from 
ftie  Gold  Coast. 

Prior  to  the  war  the  United  States,  out  of  total  importa- 
tions of  mahogany  logs  of  70,914,000  feet,  there  were  31,177,- 
000  feet  of  African  stock. 

Ivory  Coast  exported,  1920,  Mahogany  to  value  of  20,- 
370,876  francs. 

Of  African  timber  trees,  mahogany  (Swietenia  mahog- 
ftni)  holds  an  important  place,  and  thrives  throughout  Equa- 
torial Africa. 

Homer  Hoyt  of  the  War  Trade  Board  makes  this  com- 
ment on  African  mahogany: 

The  natural  range  of  African  Mahogany  (Khaya  Senega- 
lensis)  comprises  a  belt  fifteen  degrees  north  of  the  equator 
and  twenty  degrees  south  extending  across  the  continent  of  Af- 
rica, from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  It  grows  in  very 
open  stands  and  in  desert  sections  is  lacking,  but  the  trees, 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA  243 


though  scattering,  are  very  large.  Logs  reaching  American  ports 
are  often  four  to  five  feet,  squared.  On  account  of  its  range 
and  size,  the  stand  of  African  mahogany  is  probably  greater 
than  the  total  of  all  other  countries  combined. 

African  wood  is  usually  more  handsomely  figured  than  Cen- 
tral American  wood,  but  is  of  a  coarser  grain,  and  varies  great- 
ly in  quality  from  the  outside  to  the  heart  of  the  log.  All  of  the 
logs  seen  by  me  were  defective  at  the  heart  and  when  sawn 
were  usually  first  split  in  two  by  the  sawyer  on  account  of  their 
size  and  also  to  box  out  the  heartwood  to  best  advantage.  A 
curious  defect  in  African  mahogany  is  a  frequent  breaking  of  the 
wood  across  the  heart  and  even  extending  to  the  outer  portions. 
Although  I  have  not  seen  reports  from  the  laboratory,  the  fibre 
of  African  mahogany  is  undoubtedly  shorter  and  the  wood  con- 
siderably more  brittle  than  Central  American  mahogany. 

Although  African  mahogany  is  not  of  the  same  quality  or 
species  as  that  from  Central  America  and  Cuba,  it  is  allowed  for 
airplane  stock. 

The  actual  source  of  a  number  of  mahoganies  from  West 
Africa  is  unknown  except  to  a  few  merchants  who  control  the 
output. 

African  mahogany,  on  account  of  its  figure  and  ease  of 
working  has  been  popular  in  the  furniture  wood  market.  Its 
price  is  equal  to  that  of  true  mahogany,  and  is  liked  by  all  ex- 
cept the  chair  manufacturers.  As  labor  is  extremely  cheap  in 
Africa  the  logs  do  not  cost  much  to  produce.  The  principal 
item  in  cost  is  water  freight. 

Today  the  mahogany  conies  out  largely  by  floating.   This 
makes  the  production  of  mahogany  logs  dependent  upon  floods. 
No  one  can  calculate  how  many  logs  will  eventually  reach  the 
salt  water  where  they  can  be  loaded  on  vessels. 
Further  up  in  Nigeria  are  teak  plantations  near  Odogun 

and  beyond  in  the  uninhabited  region,  the  fringing  forests, 
with  the  real  African  mahogany,  Khaya  Senegalensis. 

Turning  back  to,  the  railway  and  southeastward  we  find 
the  Ona  River  forests,  part  of  which  are  reserved  where  ex- 
ist mahogany,  rubber  and  satinwood,  a  most  valuable  soft 
wood. 

The  evergreen  forests  near  Benin  have  proved  the  rich- 
est in  mahogany  of  any  exploited  thus  far  in  Nigeria.  On 
one  area  of  eight  square  miles  over  1,000  large  trees  were  got 
out  in  the  shape  of  logs  in  a  few  years.  The  largest  mahog- 
anies have  been  found  here,  56  feet  in  girth;  the  age  of  one 
large  tree  was  found  to  be  537  years.  The  variety  attaining 
the  largest  size  here  is  a  "juju"  tree. 

In  Nigeria  the  Khaya  mahogany  is  the  most  prevalent. 
Near  the  Ogba  are  found  African  walnuts  also. 

In  the  Ibo  country,  farther  east,  where  the  country  is 
much  more  thickly  settled,  all  but  the  most  inaccessible  or 
water-logged  areas  have  been  destroyed.  Red  ironwood  is 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


the  most  prevalent  in  the  Imo  evergreen  forest  to  the  east. 
An  almost  unbroken  forest  of  oil  palms  extends  from  the  Kwa 
Ibo  River  to  Bende.  Here  we  find  also  the  hard  pearwood. 

The  finest  mangrove  forests  of  the  whole  country  are  in 
the  lower  reaches  of  the  Cross  River.  Redwood,  red  ironwood 
and  aligna  are  found  further  up.  On  the  right  bank  of  the 
Cross  River  beyond  the  Aiya  are  in  addition  to  mahogany, 
the  iroko  as  one  of  the  commnest  trees. 

Below  the  eastward  bend  of  the  Cross  River  are  the 
Forests.  Oban  Hills  which,  at  a  height  of  3000  feet  are  cov- 
ered with  trees  and  where  the  ebony  is  still  common. 
The  tala,  red  ironwoocl,  mahogany  and  aligna  are  also  found 
here.  The  natives  say  it  is  possible  to  walk  about  in  this  for- 
est for  three  months  and  not  come  out;  one  path  goes  all 
round  it,  but  none  go  through  it. 

The  Khaya  mahogany  is  the  most  valu- 
Important  Species  able.  The  African  walnut  belongs  to  this 
of  Trees.  group.  There  are  two  varieties  which 

yield  scented  wood  very  similar  to  mahog- 
any for  which  they  can  be  substituted  with  the  special  desig- 
nation of  scented  wood.  Next  in  importance  is  the  iroko,  or 
African  teak,  or  rock  elm,  which  takes  the  place  of  oak  both 
for  European  and  native  use.  The  ebonies  are  still  found, 
though  most  of  the  best  trees  have  been  cut.  In  spite  of  the 
wanton  destruction  of  these  trees,  considerable  amounts  exist 
in  the  more  inaccessible  forests,  especially  near  the  Camer- 
oon border. 

Camwood  is  found  but  the  best  trees  have  been  cut  down. 
Barwood  and  other  species  have  largely  taken  its  place; 
camwood  is  used  for  dyeing  purposes. 

Satinwood  is  another  valuable  tree. 

The  shea  butter  tree  is  of  the  greatest  value  chiefly  for 
the  nuts  and  butter,  but  for  the  timber  also.  This  is  used  in 
making  mortars  used  in  preparing  food  for  cooking.  Next  in 
importance  to  this  is  the  pearwood,  one  of  the  giant  trees,  the 
most  cylindrical,  the  tallest  and  straightest  of  all.  The  red 
ironwood's  brilliant  red  leaves,  in  the  autumn,  light  up  the 
whole  forest;  at  a  distance  the  tree  seems  to  be  in  flower. 
One  of  the  most  valuable  trees  locally  is  the  opepe  which  is 
very  durable  and  termite  proof;  easy  to  work,  it  is  used  for 
weather  boards. 


HAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


245 


a  exporfced  mahogany  to  the  value  of 

;  in  1915,  to  the  value  of  $270,000. 
Next  to  mahogany  the  most  important  commercial  wood 
of  Africa  is  cork  oak  (Quercus  suber).    This  material  played 
a  large  part  in  the  war,  being  used  for  life-preservers,  buoys, 
life-rafts,  as  a  protective  filler  on  backing  battle-ship  hulls. 

Cork  is  used  industrially  for  stoppers  for 
Uses  cf  Cork  bottles,  in  making  linoleum,  insulators,  life 
and  Substitutes,  preservers,  covering  refrigeration  pipes, 
lining  of  refrigerators  and  ice-boxes,  for 
carburetor  floats  and  gaskets  in  motors,  besides  the  ordinary 
uses  of  domestic  life. 

In  the  process  of  manufacture  the  cork  bark  loses  about 
70  per  cent  in  waste,  shavings,  refuse,  etc.  Practically  all, 
however,  is  redeemed  in  the  manufacture  of  composition  cork> 
so  that  no  more  than  5  per  cent,  of  the  crude  cork  is  finally 
lost. 

Cork  is  an  odorless,  tasteless,  resilient,  buoyant  sub- 
stance, impregnable  to  gases  and  liquids,  of  low  specific  grav- 
ity (0.215),  and  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  sound  and  electric- 
ity. 

Balsa  wood,  grown  principally  in  Central  and  South  Am- 
erica, is  largely  used  as  a  substitute  for  cork. 

Military  requirements  for  the  United  States  for  cork  in 
1918,  were:  Navy,  2,100,000  pounds;  Shipping  Board,  8,100,- 
000  pounds. 

Besides  cork,  Tunis,  in  1915,  exported  10,000  tons  of 
lumber,  valued  at  $95,000.  In  1916,  Tunis  exported  6,016,384 
pounds' of  cork,  valued  at  $192,000;  in  1917,  2,244,644  pounds 
valued  at  $72,000. 

In  1913,  Algeria  exported  corkwood,  valued  at  $2,218,- 
535;  in  1914,  valued  at  $1,670,608;  in  1915,  12,191  metric 
tons  of  crude  cork,  valued  at  $828,356. 

In  1915,  Algeria  exported  216  metric  tons  of  worked 
cork,  valued  at  $135,679;  in  1916,  16,226  metric  tons  cork, 
valued  at  $1,085,046;  in  1916,  785  metric  tons  of  worked  cork 
valued  at  $492,536;  in  1913,  5,707,900  pounds  of  exotic  wood 
to  France,  valued  at  $219,200. 

It  is  estimated  that  Algeria  has  1,112,000  acres  in  cork- 
oak,  with  an  annual  average  output  of  50,000,000  pounds  of 
cork  and  an  annual  average  export  of  34,000,000  pounds; 
while  Tunis  has  850,000  acres,  according  to  later  report,  with 


246  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


an  average  annual  output  of  7,000,000  pounds  of  cork  and  an 
export  of  5,000,000  pounds.  Morocco  also  produces  consider- 
able cork.  The  United  States  is  the  largest  importer  of  cork 
— nearly  132,000,000  pounds  in  1914  and  168,241,829  pounds 
in  1917. 

In  the  time  of  the  Komans  Tunis  had  great  olive  forests. 
These  forests  were  used  principally  for  their  fruit,  but  olive 
wood  from  them,  also,  was  much  prized.  In  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury the  Arabs  destroyed  nearly  all  of  the  trees.  Much  of 
this  land  has  now  been  reclaimed. 

French  Equatorial  Africa  exported:  Okoume  wood,  62,- 
395  tons  valued  at  2,998,000  francs,  against  43,183  tons  val- 
ued at  2,103,842  francs  in  1912;  mahogany,  4,552  tons  val- 
ued at  601,260  francs,  instead  of  646  tons  valued  at  109,820 
francs  in  1912;  ebony,  90  tons  valued  at  18,000  francs;  moabi- 
analogous  hard  woods,  53  tons,  valued  at  3,975  francs;  coral, 
32  tons,  valued  at  3,720  francs;  niandji,  30  tons,  valued  at 
2,100  francs;  fine  woods,  12  tons,  valued  at  1,200  francs; 
walnut,  9  tons,  valued  at  675  francs. 

French  Equatorial  Africa  exports  okoume  wood  into 
Spain,  500  tons  in  1892.  Likewise  to  the  United  States  in  1913, 
3,329  tons  of  okoume  valued  at  16,800  francs  against  27,720 
francs  in  1912. 

Before  the  opening  of  hostilities  this  trade  which  rank- 
ed second  in  the  export  movement  of  the  colony  and  which 
represented  alone  a  fourth  of  the  general  exports,  found  its 
most  important  market  in  Germany.  Eleven  thousand  tons  of 
mahogany  are  annually  shipped  from  French  Equatorial  Af- 
rica. 

Of  all  the  woods  of  the  French  Congo,  the  most  import- 
ant species  is  the  okoume  which  may  be  estimated  at  present 
at  from  60,000  to  70,000  tons  annually.  Okoume  serves  for 
making  cigar  boxes,  in  German  trade.  The  wood  used  thus 
is  estimated  at  50,000  tons.  The  okoume  is  used  also  for 
making  furniture  whose  inside  is  made  of  ordinary  okoume 
upon  which  is  placed  valuable  wood  (walnut  or  mahogany) . 

Besides  okoume  wood,  the  Hamburg  trade  deals  also  in 
the  silk  cotton  tree  (fromager)  which  is  used  for  making 
packing  cases  and  which  appears  to  have  given  good  results 
in  the  making  of  interiors  for  furniture. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  247 


Imports  of  fromager  have  notably  increased;  from  25 
tons  in  1909,  statistics  give  525  tons  in  1910  and  2,656  tons 
in  1911;  total  imports  into  Germany  decreased  in  1913  to  44 
tons. 

Exports  from  Gaboon  to  England  in  1912 :  Okoume  wood, 
26,923  tons,  valued  at  1,431,140  fr.;  mahogany,  4,552  tons, 
valued  at  601,260  fr. ;  oak,  90  tons;  moabi  and  analogous 
woods,  53  tons;  coral,  32  tons;  mandji,  30  tons;  fine  woods, 
12  tons;  walnut,  9  tons;  miscellaneous  woods,  70  tons. 

Ebony  slightly  decreased  in  1912;  coral  slightly  In- 
creased; mandji  sensibly  decreased;  fromager  which  figured 
slightly  in  the  exports  of  1912,  has  completely  disappeared 
from  the  market. 

The  baobab  or  monkey  bread  tree  (Adansonia  digitata) 
is  an  enormous  tree  of  tropical  Africa  and  the  East  Indies,  of- 
ten growing  to  a  diameter  of  thirty  feet.  It  bears  a  gourd- 
like  fruit  known  as  monkey-bread. 

The  baobad  abounds  in  certain  parts  of  the  Congo.  In 
the  lower  part  of  the  Senegal  the  baobab  tree  is  found  every- 
where. The  pulp  of  the  fruit  is  used  for  food,  drink  and 
medicine.  Baobab  was  formerly  exported  from  Senegal.  From 
1890  to  1892  154,699  pounds  were  exported. 

In  Egypt  and  the  Egyptian  Soudan,  trees  are 
Production  by  not  numerous,  as  there  is  so  much  desert 
Countries.  land,  but  there  are  a  good  many  date  palms. 

On  the  plains  of  the  Nile  are  to  be  found  sy- 
camore and  acacia.  Farther  south,  in  Soudan,  are  acacias  of 
several  species,  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Soudan  are 
the  baobab,  borassus  palm,  and  on  the  higher  land  toward 
the  Abyssinian  tableland,  as  well  as  in  the  foothills  of  the 
equatorial  plateau,  are  mixed  forests  where  very  good  tinv, 
ber  is  found. 

Throughout  Equatorial  Africa,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Indian  oceans,  are  to  be  found  many  of  the  most  valuable 
woods. 

In  French  Equatorial  Africa  are  many  species  of  wood. 
Everyone  of  them  has  utility — as  foodstuffs,  condiments,  fat. 
drinks,  perfumes,  aphrodisiacs,  pharmacopoeia,  arm  and  ex- 
perimental poisons,  dye,  cordage,  textile,  mats,  pirogues,  car- 
penter work,  tools,  pestles,  mortars,  various  utensils,  furni- 
ture. 


248  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


The  principal  forest  riches  of  the  French  West  African 
colonies  are  cabinet  woods,  gum,  palm  oils  and  almonds,  co- 
pra, textile  fibers,  karite,  colas  and  rubber.  Only  the  expensive 
woods  have  so  far  been  exported,  principally  mahogany. 

In  Sanwi  the  native  traders  of  Assinia  serve  as  agents 
to  the  merchants  of  Liverpool,  but  the  natives  refuse  to  work 
for  the  traders.  They  group  themselves  into  villages  and 
share  the  forests  in  common,  each  chief  having  his  zone  of 
exploitation.  When  a  fine  tree  is  found  the  road  to  it  is 
marked  and  the  tree  is  identified  with  a  charm.  Then  with 
the  help  of  his  family  and  friends  the  finder  cuts  down  the 
tree  and  takes  it  away.  It  is  officially  reported  that  on  one 
occasion  the  whole  population  of  a  village  harnessed  them- 
selves. The  chief  paid  each  man  five  francs  and  each  woman 
and  child  two  francs  50,  for  dragging  the  log  to  the  river: 
he  employed  100  men  and  50  women--575  francs.  Trans- 
portation had  cost  about  350  francs.  The  log  brought  210 
pounds  in  Liverpool;  net  gain,  therefore,  was  4,325  franca 
which  was  shared  between  the  chief  and  the  happy  finder. 

The  Ivory  Coast  is  the  only  one  of  these  colonies  which 
does  not  need  reforestation. 

In  1912,  French  West  Africa  exported  67,217,776  pounds 
mahogany,  valued  at  559,030.  In  1913,  94,030,222  pounds 
mahogany,  valued  at  $967,474. 

In  both  the  French  and  Belgian  Congo  the  palm  is  the 
principal  tree,  but  there  are  also  mahogany,  rosewood  and 
caja. 

Numerous  forest  materials  of  the  Belgian  Congo  are 
furnished  from  the  elongo,  a  yellowish  wood ;  eluku,  kabum- 
ba,  kambaki,  nombinxo,  a  good  building  wood  of  yellowish 
white;  makutu,  of  excellent  quality;  tjuija. 

Nigeria  has  extensive  forests,  so  dense  that  the  only  open 
spaces  are  where  farms  or  towns  have  been  cleared.  Beyond 
the  mangroves  grow  lofty  forests,  including  palms  of  many 
kinds,  hardwoods  of  various  species,  mahogany,  ebony,  teak, 
redwood,  African  cedar,  plane,  silk-cotton,  etc.  The  kuka 
or  baobab  stretches  over  great  areas,  and  giant  bamboos, 
growing  60  and  80  feet  high  along  flood  plains  of  the  rivers, 
resemble  forests.  Mahogany  logs  weighing  20  tons  were,  be- 
fore the  war,  hauled  to  the  river  beds  and  floated  to  ocean 
steamers. 


RAW   PRODUCTS   OP   AFRICA  249 


Nigerian  export  of  mahogany  declined  from  $512,970  in 
1913,  to  $240,191  in  1916. 

In  Southern  Nigeria  there  is  probaby  an  area  of  40,000 
square  miles  of  heavy  forest  including  the  mangrove  and  oth- 
er swamp  forests  areas;  in  addition  probably  25,000  square 
miles  of  dry  zone  of  orchard  forest.  Vast  areas  of  mangrove 
awamp  forest  are  on  the  banks  of  the  various  mouths  of  the 
Niger.  About  ten  miles  from  the  bank  of  this  river  is  the 
Iwoye  forest  where  mahogany  is  the  most  prevalent  tree. 

Near  the  coast  of  Sierra  Leone  there  is  the  Peninsular 
forest,  about  5,000  acres  in  extent.  Eighty  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  "stand"  consists  of  red  ironwood. 

Besides  this,  there  is  an  African  violet  wood,  scented 
mahogany,  cedar,  iroko,  real  African  oak,  pearwood,  red 
oak.  Again,  further  north  in  this  Protectorate,  there  are  large 
tracts  covered  with  the  fan-palm,  which  bears  large  fruits. 
These  contain  large  nuts  which  are  used  for  making  buttons. 
The  wood  of  the  stem  has  proved  most  durable. 

The  colony  of  the  Gold  Coast  includes  also  the  Protec- 
torate of  Ashanti,  and  the  northern  territories,  comprising  in 
all  120,000  square  miles  in  extent.  Thus  far,  most  of  the  tim- 
ber extraction  has  been  done  nearest  the  mines,  such  as  Ta- 
quah  and  the  Ashanti  Gold  Fields  Corporation,  both  near  the 
railway  which  runs  up  from  the  port  of  Seccondee.  In  fact, 
the  railway  has  been  the  chief  means  of  exploiting  some  of 
the  forests. 

Further  west  the  Ankobra  river  has  been  the  chief  means 
of  transport.  Up  to  the  present  about  5,000  square  miles  have 
been  set  apart  for  plantation  or  timber  work.  There  are, 
however,  between  10,000  and  15,000  square  miles  of  forest 
not  yet  placed  under  systematic  working. 

Senegal  is  the  ante-chamber  of  the  desert,  and  every  tree, 
every  bush  cut  brings  it  nearer  to  that  desert.  Yet  the  Euro- 
pans  have  denuded  the  region  without  giving  thought  to  the 
future. 

From  1825  to  1837  inclusive,  approximately  258  cubic 
meters  of  wood  were  exported  from  Senegal. 

In  1840  exportation  included  cabinet  woods:  Sandal- 
Wood,  8,477  kilograms;  ebony,  8,002  kilograms;  cailcedra, 
165  cubic  meters.  From  1865  to  1877  inclusive,  3,674  steres 
of  wood  were  exported  from  Saint  Louis  for  fire  wood,  and 
13,956  steres  of  charcoal,  besides  some  building  wood. 


250  RAW   PRODUCTS   OF   AFRICA 


From  1897  to  1899  inclusive,  only  two  steres  of  fire  wood 
were  exported  from  the  whole  colony. 

St.  Louis  has  no  forests  anywhere  near  it — all  this  wood 
comes  from  the  river;  it  is  brought  either  by  barges  or  by 
pirogues  and  comes  from  very  far  since  the  woods  may  be 
considered  as  denuded  from  300  kilometers  all  around.  If 
one  considers  the  climatic  conditions  of  Senegal,  one  may  un- 
derstand how  fatal  to  such  a  region  is  a  denudation  carried 
out  without  thought  and  without  care  for  reproduction.  The 
neighborhood  of  Dakar  is  denuded,  and  the  neighborhood  of 
Rufisque  may  be  considered  so. 

In  the  Gold  Coast  are  to  be  found  mahogany,  teak,  ebony, 
camwood,  so  popular  for  inlay  in  furniture,  and  valued  at 
$150  per  ton,  and  bombax  or  silk-cotton,  a  magnificent  tree 
and  one  of  the  most  common  timber  trees  of  this  region.  Its 
soft  wood  is  much  used  by  the  natives  for  their  dug-outs. 

In  1913,  the  Gold  Coast  exported  37,392,100  sup.  feet 
of  lumber.  In  1917,  1,003  tons  of  native  timber,  valued  at 
$5,000;  in  1917,  11,649  tons  of  fire  wood,  valued  at  $14,000. 

Angola  has  a  variety  of  timber,  one  of  its  most  conspic- 
uous varieties  being  the  tacula,  which  grows  to  immense  size 
and  has  blood-red  wood,  valued  for  manufacture.  Mahogany 
also  grows  well.  In  1898  Angola  exported  wood  to  the  value 
of  $11,000. 

In  East  Africa  acacias  and  giant  euphorbias  are  found. 
There  are  also  forests  of  cotton-trees,  sycamores,  the  spread- 
ing banyan,  the  conspicuously  characteristic  doum  palm  and 
grotesque  baobab.  Acacias  are  found  everywhere  below  the 
altitude  of  6,000  feet;  and  in  the  upper  highlands  are  found 
the  jumper,  cypress,  cocoanut,  tamarinds  and  yews,  while 
all  along  the  coastal  marshes  mangroves  grow.  Both  Eng- 
lish and  German  East  Africa,  before  the  war,  were  wise 
enough  to  realize  the  value  of  the  forests  for  future  use  and 
had  laws  for  protecting  and  extending  them.  The  use  of  wood 
has  been  chiefly  local  so  far,  but  the  commercial  outlook  in 
timber  is  promising. 

In  1911,  German  East  Africa  exported  13,569,470  pounds 
wood  and  timber,  valued  at  $122,494;  in  1912,  8,464,923 
pounds,  valued  at  $56,099. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA  251 


Somaliland  has  vast  stretches  of  jungles  or  low  scrub, 
with  woodland  on  the  crests,  containing  box,  cedar  and  Som- 
ali pine  (Junipems  procera). 

In  Mozambique  the  exploitation  of  timber  is  an  industry 
which  has  a  great  future.  Its  forests  contain  numerous  hard 
woods  excellent  for  making  furniture,  as  well  as  softer  tim- 
bers valued  in  house  and  other  construction,  and  mangrove 
swamps  are  numerous  all  along  the  coast. 

In  1914,  Mozambique  exported,  through  Lourenco  Mar- 
ques, mangrove  wood  to  the  value  of  §185;  in  1914,  through 
Chinde,  firewood  to  the  value  of  $4,320;  in  1914,  through 
Mozambique,  ebony  to  the  value  of  $2,265;  in  1914,  through 
Chinde,  timber  to  the  value  of  $981 ;  in  1916,  through  Lour- 
enco Marques,  234,997  pounds  of  timber,  valued  at  $523 ;  in 
1916,  through  Chinde,  1,180,250  kg.  of  firewood,  valued  at 
6,480  escudos;  in  1916,  through  Chinde,  172,669  kg.  timber, 
valued  at  1,860  escudos. 

Madagascar  has  an  enormous  forest  covering  25,000,000 
acres,  and  much  of  the  wood  found  in  the  large  areas  is  hard 
and  suitable  for  cabinet  and  carriage  making.  In  1917,  the 
island  exported  6,424,000  pounds  of  common  timber,  and 
173,800  pounds  of  ebony  for  cabinet  making. 

The  Canary  Islands  are  rich  in  timber.  Walnut  trees, 
osiers,  heather  trees,  laurel,  bracken,  scrub  pine,  broom,  ma- 
hogany, hard  white  wood,  cork,  elm,  oak,  eucalyptus,  plane, 
beech,  Cyprus,  coral  tree,  stone  or  umbrella  pine,  camphor, 
india  rubber  tree,  wattle,  pepper  tree,  acacia,  araucaria  and 
rose  apple ;  also  the  fir,  the  mango  and  the  blackberry.  A  large 
part  of  the  forests  have  been  burned  or  destroyed. 

Woods  excellent  for  making  furniture,  as  well  as  softer 
timbers  valued  in  house  and  other  construction,  and  man- 
grove swamps  are  numerous  all  along  the  coast. 

In  1914,  Mozambique  exported,  through  Lourenco 
Marques,  $185  worth  of  mangrove  wood;  $2,265  of  ebony; 
through  Chinde,  firewood,  $4,320;  timber,  $981. 

In  1916  the  export  through  Lourenco  Marques  was  234,- 
997  pounds  of  timber  valued  at  $523;  through  Chinde,  1,180,- 
250  kg.  of  firewood,  valued  at  6,480  escudos,  and  172,669  kg. 
timber,  valued  at  1,860  escudos. 


252  RAW    PRODUCTS   OF   A F B i c A 


Mozambique  produced  in  1913,  $78,840  worth  of  man- 
grove bark,  of  which  the  United  States  took  $30,281  worth, 
and  would  yearly  import  the  entire  produce  with  ready  trans- 
portation, as  the  demands  exceed  the  supply. 

In  South  Africa  there  are  474,000  square  miles,  of  which 
450,000  acres  are  native  woods.  About  61,000  acres  have 
been  planted  with  exotic  trees,  along  coasts  and  mountain 
sides. 

Stinkwood  used  in  cabinet  and  wagon  making,  is  the 
most  valuable  native  wood.  Yellowwood,  used  for  sleepers, 
has  the  tallest  trees  (630  feet).  Sneezewood  is  durable. 
Wattle,  valuable  for  its  bark,  is  of  growing  importance,  as 
mine  props,  posts,  fuel  and  for  distilling.  Black  iron  wood 
is  common,  strong  and  hard.  The  local  boxwood  is  equal  to 
the  turkish  for  turning,  screwing  or  engraving. 

The  amount  of  wood  cut  during  the  year  1910-11  wag 
about  14,000,000  cubic  feet,  and  while  the  export  of  South 
African  timber  does  not  on  the  average  exceed  £5,000  in 
value  each  year,  the  imports  of  unmanufactured  timber  dur- 
ing the  years  1913  to  1915  averaged  about  £520,000,  repre- 
senting about  8,500,000  cubic  feet,  of  which  the  greater  pro- 
portion was  pine,  much  of  it  from  the  United  States. 

In  1913  the  Union  Forest  Act  was  passed  to  conserve  and 
increase  the  forestry  production.  On  the  Cape  Peninsula  con- 
ifers and  eucalypti  have  been  planted. 

The  furniture  business  has  grown  rapidly  in  the  Union 
of  South  Africa,  and  excellent  work  is  turned  out,  although 
the  industry  has  been  handicapped  by  scarcity  of  competent 
labor.  Timber  seasons  slowly  in  this  country;  most  of  the 
wood  used  in  furniture  making  is  imported. 

The  calabash  tree,  from  which  a  gourd  serves  as  a  com- 
mon drinking  cup,  is  abundant  in  Southern  Africa. 

In  Madagascar  the  forests  contain  nearly  every  variety 
of  wood,  and  suitable  for  nearly  all  the  industrial  purposes. 
Madagascar  has  an  enormous  forest  covering  25,000,000 
acres. 

In  1917,  the  island  exported  6,424,000  pounds  of  common 
timber,  and  173,800  pounds  of  ebony  for  cabinet  making. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  or  AFRICA  253 


Much  of  Africa  is  in  need  of  re-foresting  in  order 
Outlook,  to  conserve  the  valuable  native  woods.  The  blight- 
ing sands  of  the  Sahara  are  encroaching  upon  forest 
areas.  Reclamation  of  savannahs  by  drainage,  harnessing  of 
the  many  rivers  for  driving  saw  mills — reforesting,  are  much 
in  need.  There  is  great  waste  in  cutting  wood  by  crude  native 
methods.  Everywhere  in  French  Equatorial  Africa  except  on 
the  Ivory  Coast  there  is  need  of  reforestation. 

WATTLE  AND  OTHER  TANNING  BARKS 

Chief  among  the  tanning  barks  of  Africa  is  wattle,  with 
mangrove  a  fair  second,  followed  by  oak,  hemlock,  willow. 
Galls  of  the  oak  and  sumac,  formations  on  the  barks  of  these 
trees,  are  also  used  in  this  way. 

Procuring,  raising  and  preparing  wattle,  the  bark  of  va- 
rious acacia  trees  (Acacia  longifolia)  is  a  large  African  in- 
dustry. Wattle  bark  is  a  tanning  material  for  producing 
heavy  leathers,  to  which  it  gives  a  reddish  tinge.  The  acacia 
from  which  wattle  is  procured  is  native  of  Australia  and  was 
introduced  into  South  and  West  Africa  within  recent  years, 
but  a  larger  amount  is  now  produced  in  South  Africa  than 
in  Australia.  Black  wattle  (Acacia  decurrens)  is  best  known 
and  best  quality. 

The  seed  is  planted  in  plowed  land,  and  in 
Production  and  seven  to  nine  years  the  trees  are  ready  for 
By-Products,  cutting,  when  they  have  reached  a  diame- 
ter of  six  or  eight  inches.  Each  tree  should 
yield  100  pounds  of  green  bark,  and  average  yield  to  the  acre 
is  three  to  three  and  one-half  tons  of  dried  bark,  while  thin- 
ning out  of  trees  in  the  fourth  year  gives  a  further  yield  of 
three-fourths  ton.  Five  hundred  dollars  gross  return  per 
acre  is  considered  good. 

The  crude  bark  is  crushed  between  moist  bronze  rollers, 
boiled,  purified,  hardened  and  shipped  in  100  pound  bags. 

After  the  tannin  (32  per  cent,  is  the  average)  is  secured, 
the  pulp  remaining  is  made  into  a  coarse  paper.  Railway 
ties  and  mining  props,  methyl  alcohol  and  20  kinds  of  dyes 
come  from  wattle-  A  ton  of  the  wood  yields  139  pounds  of 
acetate  of  lime;  3.7  gallons  of  wood  spirits;  134  pounds  tar, 
605  pounds  charcoal. 


254  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


The  bark  contains  cellulose  up  to  60  per  cent,  Iiy2  per 
cent,  moisture,  and  8.7  per  cent.  ash. 

London  is  the  chief  buyer,  paying  £9  per  ton  in  1906;  £8 
during  the  next  five  years;  £7  in  1912,  1913  and  1914.  The 
war  increased  the  price  in  1915  to  £13;  1916  and  1917  to  £17. 

Natal  is  chief  producer,  having  in  1918,  160,000  acres; 
Transvaal  20,000,  and  all  South  Africa  250,000  acres. 

South  Africa  shipped  in  1911,  111,205,265  pounds  of 
wattle  bark,  valued  at  $1,440,000;  in  1913,  145,717,738 
pounds,  valued  at  $1,535,000;  in  1915,  89,661,464  pounds, 
valued  at  $976,000;  in  1917,  100,000,000  pounds,  valued  at 
$1,367,000;  in  1917,  2,784,188  pounds  wattle  bark  extract, 
valued  at  $247,200. 

This  was  practically  all  shipped  from  Durban,  but  a  small 
quantity  went  from  Delagoa  Bay. 

Natal  now  has  a  large  plant  for  extracting  tannin,  is  es- 
tablishing others,  and  ships  it  chiefly  in  that  form. 

In  1913,  Mozambique  produced  $78,840  worth  of  man- 
grove bark.  Of  this  total,  $30,281  worth  went  direct  to  the 
United  States,  the  total  American  imports  from  Portuguese 
East  Africa  during  the  year.  The  demand  for  mangrove  bark 
in  the  United  States  is  constantly  increasing  and  far  exceeds 
the  supply. 

British  East  Africa  has  12,000,000  acres  in  wattle  and 
other  tanning  bark  trees,  but  as  yet  many  of  the  plantations 
are  young.  In  1914  there  were  11,000  acres  in  wattle.  The 
industry  is  protected  by  the  government.  The  prospects  are 
very  promising. 

German  East  Africa  exported  tanning  barks  in  1911, 
4,188,998  pounds,  valued  at  $22,816;  1912,  5,500,403  pounds, 
valued  at  $23,734. 

Wattle  bark  to  the  value  of  £986,484  was  exported,  1920, 
from  Union  of  South  Africa. 

Procuring  and  preparing  wattle  is  also  important  in  An- 
gola, Mozambique  and  Madagascar,  although  none  of  these 
countries  have  yet  had  shipments  of  great  commercial  im- 
portance. 

MANGROVE 

Mangrove  (Rhizophora)  grows  on  the  swampy  coasts  of 
all  tropical  countries  and  it  is  especially  used  in  African  coun- 
tries for  its  bark  which  is  rich  in  tannin,  good  bark  having 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  255 


over  30  per  cent,  of  tannin.  It  is  also  shipped  to  tanneries 
abroad,  though  not  so  extensively  as  wattle.  The  wood  of 
the  mangrove  is  used  for  building  material  and  posts. 

Portuguese  Africa  had  a  very  important  export  trade  in 
mangrove  bark  in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  but  about 
1908  this  fell  off  because  of  the  reckless  destruction  of  trees. 
The  industry  is  reviving,  however,  and  conservation  will  pro- 
vide for  a  constant  yield. 

In  Mozambique  the  industry  is  of  comparatively  recent 
introduction.  In  1913  this  province  collected  4,000  tons  of 
mangrove  bark. 

In  1914,  Mozambique  exported  through  Quelimane, 
mangrove  bark  to  the  value  of  $6,922 ;  through  Mozambique, 
$22,080. 

The  one  product  which  has  been  exported  regularly  to 
the  United  States  from  Mozambique  is  mangrove  bark.  There 
were  15,580  tons,  valued  at  $931,483  invoiced  at  the  American 
consulate  at  Lorenco  Marques,  Portuguese  East  Africa,  for 
the  United  States  during  1916,  against  10,836  tons  valued  at 
$489,162,  for  1915. 

British  East  Africa  has  vast  mangrove  swamps  and  pro- 
duces considerable  amounts  of  tanning  bark  and  lumber  from 
them.  In  1915-1916,  besides  quantities  of  bark,  500,000  bor- 
ities  were  exported,  chiefly  to  Arabia. 

In  Nigeria,  Gambia  and  Sierra  Leone,  mangrove  is  of 
commercial  importance  in  all  the  swampy  regions,  the  bark 
for  tanning  purposes  being  utilized. 

Along  the  whole  coast  of  Rhodesia  are  mangrove  and 
other  trees  furnishing  tanning  bark.  They  rank  in  import- 
ance, rhizophora,  racemosa,  brugiera  gymnorrhiza,  and  ceri- 
ops  candelleanna.  Only  the  first  mangrove  species  has  been 
exploited.  In  1907  this  output  amounted  to  111,735  kilograms 
of  bark,  valued  at  870,000  reis. 

In  Angola,  the  bark  of  the  musuemba  is  found  in  large 
quantities  and  used  for  tanning  leather. 

The  only  tanning  material  produced  in 

Tanning  Materials     considerable  quantity  in  Madagascar  Is 

of  Madagascar.          red  mangrove  bark.     During  the   past 

three  or  four  years  production  has  been 


256  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


declining,  due  to  the  scarcity  of  mangrove  trees  and,  more  re- 
cently, to  transportation  difficulties.  The  two  French  naviga- 
tion companies  now  serving  Madagascar  always  find  suffi- 
cient freight  of  a  higher  class  than  bark,  and  consequently  it 
is  difficult  to  obtain  shipping  space  for  the  latter. 

GUMS  AND  RESINS 

The  gums  and  resins  of  commerce  are  formed  by  the 
thickening  of  saps  of  trees  or  plants,  and  are  obtained  from 
the  excision  of  plants  or  are  artificially  extracted.  True  gums 
are  soluble  in  water,  in  which  they  form  a  mucilage.  They 
are  used  in  thickening  fabrics,  in  mucilage,  ink,  medicines, 
cordials,  confections,  stiffening  hats,  baskets. 

Of  African  gums  Copal  and  Gum  Arabic  stand  foremost. 
These  products,  owing  to  the  ruthless,  wasteful  methods  of 
obtaining  the  wild  supplies,  are  rapidly  diminishing. 

Resins  are  harder  than  gums  and  are  insoluble  in  water, 
They  are  used  chiefly  in  medicines,  varnishes  and  incense. 

Belgian  Congo  exported,  1920,  copal  to  the  value  of  40,- 
305,021  francs  (13,249,514  kilos). 

Gum  copal  (Trachylobium)  is  a  resinous  substance  that 
exudes  from  many  tropical  trees.  There  is  also  a  fossil  copal 
of  the  best  quality  dug  from  the  ground  where  great  forests 
once  existed. 

When  first  dug,  fossil  copal  is  covered  with  a  sandy  crust, 
usually  of  a  reddish  tint,  and  in  order  to  remove  this  it  must 
be  scraped  or  dissolved  by  a  solution  of  soda  or  potash.  It  is 
usually  exported  in  the  rough  state  and  cleaned  in  the  for- 
eign markets.  To  become  soluble  in  alcohol  or  turpentine, 
copal  must  be  melted  or  distilled. 

Gum  copal  is  found  in  almost  unlimited  quantities  in 
many  parts  of  Equatorial  Africa.  In  1912  it  could  be  bought 
from  natives  for  2d.  per  pound,  bringing  Is  a  pound  in  Brit- 
ish markets. 

Pitman's  "Common  Commodities  and  Industries"  states: 
The  principal  sources  of  the  copal  of  commerce  are  East  Af- 
rica, West  Africa,  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  certain  islands  in 
Polynesia,  New  Zealand,  New  Caledonia  and  the  north- 
eastern portions  of  South  America. 


KAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  257 


The  East  African  product  is  collected  in  British,  Portu- 
guese and  (the  late)  German  East  Africa,  and  is  usually  sent 
thence  to  Zanzibar,  where  it  is  sorted,  cleaned  and  packed 
for  export.  It  is  known  as  Zanzibar  animi  or  copal,  and  va- 
ries greatly  in  price,  in  normal  times  dust  fetching  about  £30 
per  ton  and  fine  grades  over  £300.  The  value  of  the  exports 
from  Zanzibar  reaches  about  £15,000  per  annum.  The  East 
African  copals  are  fossil  resins.  They  are  probably  the  pro- 
duct of  species  of  Trachylobium. 

The  West  African  copals  are  obtained  along  the  coastal 
regions  of  West  Africa,  from  Sierra  Leone  to  the  Portuguese 
Congo.  The  finer  varieties  are  fossil  or  semi-fossil.  The  best 
varieties  are  obtained  from  the  Congo,  Angola  and  Ben  guela ; 
the  medium  qualities  from  Sierra  Leone  and  Accra,  and  the 
low  grades  from  the  Niger  Districts.  The  trees  which  yield 
or  have  yielded  these  types  are  probably  Copaifera  guibour- 
tiana,  Cyanaothryrsus  ogea  and  Daniella  oblonga.  They  are 
of  far  less  value  than  East  African  copal,  the  best  qualities, 
in  normal  times,  being  worth  about  £75  per  ton. 

Throughout  the  Congo  forests  copal  trees 
Production  by  abound.  The  gum  is  used  principally  for  varn- 
Countries.  ish  and  is  of  various  qualities  and  varieties. 

Before  the  war  practically  all  of  the  Congo's 
large  output  of  gum  copal  was  marketed  through  brokers  in 
Antwerp.  England  has  become  the  only  market  for  this  article, 
which  is  one  of  the  chief  products  entering  into  the  export 
trade  of  the  Belgian  colony.  In  1906  Belgian  Congo  ex- 
ported 1,911,217  pounds  of  gum  copal,  valued  at  $220,000- 

In  1911  Belgian  Congo  exported  4,800,000  pounds  of  co- 
pal; in  1914,  8,910,000  pounds;  in  1915,  14,630,000  pounds; 
in  1916,  15,000,000  pounds. 

In  Southern  Nigeria  a  good  quality  of  gum  copal  is  col- 
lected under  the  name  of  ogea  gum. 

In  Senegal  copal  trees  grow  in  certain  sections,  but  the 
gathering  of  the  gum  is  not  a  very  important  industry  of  the 
country. 

In  1915  Senegal  exported  gums  to  the  value  of  $296,- 
317,  a  large  proportion  of  which  was  gum  copal. 

A  considerable  amount  of  gum  copal  goes  to  foreign  mar- 
kets through  Morocco  ports.  In  1913,  $118,000  worth  wat 
brought  in  by  desert  caravans. 


258  RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


In  1913,  Angola  exported  248  tons  of  copal,  valued  at 
$29,377. 

In  Sierra  Leone  the  export  of  gum  copal  was  prohibited 
for  five  years,  by  local  order  of  the  Council  passed  Septem- 
ber 30,  1913.  The  gum  produced  in  this  country  is  so  hard 
that  it  is  called  "flint  copal".  On  the  Massewe  Hills  Reserve 
an  area  of  about  350  acres  was  cleared  of  undergrowth  and 
planted  with  copal  producing  trees. 

In  1912,  Sierra  Leone  exported  gum  copal  to  value  of 
$7,820;  in  1913,  $13,050;  in  1914,  $14,963. 

In  the  Soudan  copal  is  gathered  by  the  natives.  Women 
of  fantastic  tastes  produce  wonderful  coiffures  with  the  aid 
Df  this  gum. 

The  copal  gum  tree  is  found  in  Guinea  and  the  Ivory 
Coast  especially.  From  1890-1899  average  exportation  of  gum 
copal  was  3,945,376  kilograms;  largest  figure  was  5,909,- 
542  kg.  in  1898. 

In  British  East  Africa  the  commercial  output  of  this  gum 
or  resin  has  been  greatly  decreased  since  the  war.  There  is 
prospect,  however,  of  the  gum  trade  becoming  very  extensive 
in  this  country. 

German  East  Africa  abounds  in  copal  forests.  In  .X911, 
German  East  Africa  exported  210,021  pounds  of  gum  copal, 
valued  at  25,567  marks;  in  1912,  237,795  pounds,  valued  at 
28,493  marks. 

Zanzibar  once  abounded  in  copal-producing  trees,  but 
extension  of  cultivation  of  other  productions  has  almost  anni- 
hilated them.  There  is  much  fossil  copal  in  Zanzibar. 

In  Madagascar  copal  gum  is  exported  to  France,  where 
it  has  brought  as  high  as  $80  for  220  pounds.  About  300  tons 
are  exported  per  annum. 

In  1916  Mozambique  exported  6,395  pounds  of  gum  co- 
pal. 

Myrrh  (Myrrha  commiphora  and  M.  balsamea)  is  ob- 
tained from  a  shrub  of  Abyssinia  and  Arabia,  and  was  a  char- 
acteristic plant  in  the  time  of  Herodotus.  The  substance  so 
named  in  Bible  times  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  mixture  of 
myrrh  and  labdanum. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA  259 


Myrrh  is  used  in  perfume,  incense,  as  a  tonic  internally, 
and  as  a  cleansing  agent  externally.  Myrrh  gum  makes  ex- 
cellent mucilage  as  it  keeps  unusually  well ;  and  myrrh  resin 
is  usod  in  varnishes. 

In  Somaliland  the  collecting  of  myrrh  is  done  under  of- 
ficial sanction,  by  the  Somali  natives,  who  obtain  the  gum 
partly  from  natural  fissures  and  partly  from  artificial  incis- 
ions made  by  themselves.  The  crops  are  sent  to  the  capital 
of  Somaliland,  Berbera,  and  to  Aden  in  Arabia. 

Somaliland  produces  numerous  other  gums  and  resins, 
which  are  classed  under  the  name  of  bdelliums. 

Frankincense  or  Olibanum  (Pinus  abies,  P.  balsamea  and 
Larix)  is  another  fragrant  gum  obtained  from  small  trees  or 
shrubs.  Frankincense  is  obtained  in  the  same  localities  as 
myrrh  and  is  similarly  produced.  Its  uses  are  chiefly  in  me- 
dical plasters,  in  perfumes,  and  as  incense. 

Camphor  (Cinnamomum  camphora),  is  a  large,  beauti- 
ful evergreen  tree,  native  of  China  and  Eastern  Asia.  As  a 
conservative  measure,  trees  are  not  allowed  to  be  cut  in  coun- 
tries where  they  are^ raised  commercially  until  they  are  about 
fifty  years  old. 

Camphor  is  used  in  medicines,  as  a  disinfectant,  as  a 
Uses,  protection  against  insects,  in  the  manufacture  of 
smokeless  powder,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  celluloid. 
In  1915,  the  world's  supply  of  camphor  was  estimated  at  10,- 
000,000  pounds,  70  per  cent  of  which  was  used  in  making 
celluloid. 

Camphor  is  not  of  commercial  importance  in  any  part  of 
Africa,  but  several  experiments  have  given  promise  of  large 
outcome,  especially  those  in  Mauritius. 

Sandarack  is  the  gummy  product  of  several  small  trees 
or  large  shrubs  (Thuja  articulata),  that  grow  in  northwestern 
Africa.  There  are  similar  species  of  this  resin  in  other  parts 
of  the  world,  but  the  African  product  is  by  far  the  best.  Its 
chief  use  is  as  a  dryer  in  varnishes. 

In  1913,  Algeria  exported  to  France,  vegetable  wax, 
gums,  resins,  5218  tons,  valued  at  $945,507. 

Gum  Arabic  (Mimosa  nilotica)  occurs  as  an  exudation 
on  the  stems  and  branches  of  several  species  of  Acacia  found 
in  Africa.  It  is  soluble  in  both  cold  and  hot  water.  It  occurs 
in  commerce  as  rounded  lumps  of  a  nearly  white  appearance. 


260  RAW   PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA 


The  ash  on  calcination  is  about  three  per  cent.,  consisting  of 
carbonates  of  calcium,  magnesium,  and  potassium.  Indian 
gum  arabic  is  of  a  dark  color,  and  insoluble  in  water. 

Gum  Senegal  is  closely  allied  to  gum  arabic,  being  also 
obtained  from  a  species  of  Acacia  (Mimosa  senega!)  growing 
in  Northern  Africa.  It  is  much  darker  in  color  than  gum 
arabic. 

In  the  Soudan  the  best  gum  is  collected  from  the  gray 
backed  acacia  tree,  acacia  Senegal,  known  locally  as  hashab, 
A  certain  amount  of  gum  is  collected  in  the  Blue  Nile  district, 
and  there  is  a  fair  gum  trade  between  the  Blue  Nile  and  Abys- 
sinia; but  Kordofan  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  gum  collect- 
ing industry.  In  this  province  the  gum  is  transported  either 
direct  to  Khartoum  by  camels  or  to  Goz  Abu  Guma  and  El 
Dulime,  towns  on  the  White  Nile. 

The  method  of  collecting  this  gum  is  as  follows:  The 
gum  exudes  from  the  stem  and  branches  spontaneously,  and 
the  flow  is  usually  stimulated  by  making  incisions  in  the  bark. 
The  exuded  gum  hardens  on  exposure  to  the  air  and  is  then 
collected,  dried  and  exported. 

Exports  of  Soudan  Gum  from  Egypt 

Kilos  Value 

1885  1,146,879  £  97,671 

1890  7,052  469 

1895  149,955  5,856 

1900 1,863,072  93,847 

1905  8,838,483  217,132 

Egyptian  export  of  gum  in  1915  was  $94,441 ;  1916,  $118-, 
712. 

Morocco  exports  annually  about  100  tons. 
The  gum  industry  of  Senegal  is  of  comparatively  recent 
origin.  In  1914  Senegal  exported  3,936,347  pounds  of  gum 
arabic  valued  at  $226,000. 

A  fair  amount  of  gum  now  reaches  this  market  from 
Northern  Nigeria,  the  average  annual  value  being  about  £8,- 
000,  and  possibilities  exist  in  this  direction  in  the  Gold  Coast 
Colony,  Orange  River  Colony  and  various  other  parts  of  Af- 
rica. 

Gum  Senegrl  is  also  produced  in  Guinea.  Before  the  war 
German  West  Africa's  most  important  export  was  gum  ara- 
bic, which  amounted  to  about  $4,000,000  per  annum. 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  261 


In  1912  French  West  Africa  exported  7,255,526  pounds 
of  gum  arable,  valued  at  $554,162;  and  in  1913,  7,882,627 
pounds,  valued  at  $481,091. 

Gum  arable  is  a  special  product  of  countries  bordering 
the  desert,  hot  dry  winds  favoring  the  exudation  of  gums  and 
resins. 

Gum  tragacanth  (Astragalus  gummifer),  native  to  Per- 
sia and  Greece,  but  introduced  into  many  other  countries,  is 
largely  used  as  a  substitute  for  gum  arabic. 

As  gum  and  resin  gathering  is  such  an  important 
Outlook,  industry  in  Africa  and  the  natives  are  so  largely 
depended  upon  for  obtaining  it,  they  should  be 
trained  in  economical  methods  and  taught  the  future  want 
that  will  result  from  present  waste.  They  should  also  be 
taught  to  grade  the  gums,  in  order  to  bring  about  the  best  fi- 
nancial returns.  There  is  an  abundance  of  gum  in  Africa 
although  the  sources  of  petrified  copal  must  gradualy  dim- 
inish. 

Wheat  Additional 

In  1918,  Algeria  had  3,186,000  acres  in  wheat,  which 
produced  49,199,000  bushels.  During  the  war  Algeria  was 
one  of  the  large  sources  of  wheat  for  the  Allied  armies. 

Some  70  or  80  modern  flour  mills  are  scattered  through- 
out Algeria,  Constantine,  and  Oran,  with  a  total  of  6,000 
horsepower,  with  1,300  workmen  . 

During  the  war  Morocco  increased  the  acreage  of  her 
wheat  fields  until  wheat  became  11  per  cent,  of  the  total  ex- 
ports in  value,  exporting  in  1915  wheat  to  the  value  of  $1, 
143,048;  in  1916  to  the  value  of  $1,400,000. 

Wheat  growing  is  encouraged  in  the  southern  and  east- 
ern parts  of  Belgian  Congo  and  in  other  West  African  coun- 
tries. Until  recent  years  nearly  all  the  flour  used  has  been 
imported. 

In  1914,  German  East  Africa  exported  wheat  flour 
through  Lorenco  Marques  to  the  value  of  $1,314. 

In  1915,  Mozambique  exported  wheat  to  the  value  of 
$219,646. 

The  wheat  output  of  Rhodesia  for  1916  was  valued  at 
$4,500,000;  the  flour  output  of  Rhodesia  for  1916  was  valued 
at  $2,500,000. 


262  RAW   PRODUCTS   OP  AFRICA 

INDEX 

Page 

Animal   Products  17 

Wool  18 

Mohair 22 

Hides  and  Skins 25 

Outlook  for  Hides  and  Skins 5 

Meats   34 

Horses  and  Mules  , 40 

Dairy  Products 42 

Poultry  and  Eggs  45 

Beeswax  and  Honey  48 

Silk   51 

Ostrich  Feathers  53 

Ivory  , 56 

Sponges    61 

Coral  and  Shells  63 

Fish   , 69 

Big  Game 75 

Mineral  Products  83 

Gold  84 

Diamonds  89 

Copper  96 

Tin   101 

Iron   106 

Manganese   109 

Chromium   Ill 

Silver 112 

Zinc   113 

Lead  115 

Coal    116 

Mica  120 

Asbestos  122 

Graphite  124 

Petroleum  126 

Phosphates  129 

Potash   131 

Salt  131 

Soda   133 

Natron   133 

Limestone  134 

Marble   135 

Gypsum    , ,  135 


RAW  PRODUCTS  OF  AFRICA  263 


Talc  136 

Chalk   136 

Other  Precious  Stones 136 

Minerals  of  Minor  Production  137 

Antimony  138 

Vegetable  Products    141 

Vegetable  Oils  142 

Outlook  for  Palm  Products  6 

Olive   Oil   147 

Cocoanut  Oil — Copra  150 

Castor   Oil   152 

Sesame   153 

Other  Oils  153 

Shea  Nuts  155 

Manioc,  Cassava  156 

Barley  158 

Millet   159 

Durra   161 

Oats 161 

Wheat   162-261 

Wheat  Additional 261 

Rye   165 

Maize  or  Mealies  165 

Rice 170 

Cotton  174 

Outlook  for  Cotton 6 

Sisal 180 

Esparto  182 

Tobacco 187 

Vanilla  and  other  Essences  189 

Vegetable  Perfumes  191 

Rubber 192 

Outlook  for  Rubber 5 

Spices  195 

Cloves  197 

Ginger 198 

Herbs    200 

Dyes   201 

Drugs   205 

Sugar 208 

Beans    210 

Peas 213 

Coffee  .  .  215 


264  RAW  PRODUCTS  OP  AFRICA 


Tea  217 

Cocoa   218 

Outlook  for  Cocoa 6 

Kola   223 

Peanuts  Arachides  225 

Ground  Nuts  226 

Nuts    227 

Fruits 229 

Dates 235 

Wines  and  Liquors  236 

Garden  Vegetables  239 

Woods  of  Africa  242 

Wattle  and  other  Tanning  Barks 253 

Gums  and  Resins  .,  .256 


TC  3V284 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


